# **Ancient Greek I PHILIP S. PEEK A 21st Century Approach**

**OBP**

 **PHILIP S. PEEK**

ANCIENT GREEK I

ANCIENT GREEK I

A 21st Century Approach

PHILIP S. PEEK

In this elementary textbook, Philip S. Peek draws on his twenty-fi ve years of teaching experience to present the ancient Greek language in an imagina� ve and

The course is built on three pillars: memory, analysis, and logic. Readers memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring ancient Greek words, the essen� al word endings, the eight parts of speech, and the gramma� cal concepts they will most frequently encounter when reading authen� c ancient texts. Analysis and logic exercises enable the transla� on and parsing of genuine ancient Greek sentences, with compelling reading selec� ons in English and in Greek off ering star� ng points for contempla� on, debate, and refl ec� on. A series of embedded Learning Tips help teachers and students to think in prac� cal and imagina� ve ways about how they

This combina� on of memory-based learning and concept- and skill-based learning gradually builds the confi dence of the reader, teaching them how to learn by guiding them from a familiarity with the basics to profi ciency in reading this beau� ful language. *Ancient Greek I* is wri� en for high-school and university students, but is an instruc� ve and rewarding text for anyone who wishes to learn ancient Greek.

This is the author-approved edi� on of this Open Access � tle. As with all Open Book publica� ons, this en� re book is available to read for free on the publisher's website. Printed and digital edi� ons, together with supplementary digital material,

Cover image: *Athenian Fragmentary voti ve sculpture of Dionysus (?),* Greek Ashmolean

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Museum. Photo by Mary Harrsch. Cover Design by Anna Ga� .

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# **ANCIENT GREEK I**

# **Ancient Greek I**

A 21st-Century Approach

Philip S. Peek

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© 2021 Philip S. Peek

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Philip S. Peek, *Ancient Greek I: A 21st Century Approach.* Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, 2021. https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0264

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Cover image: Athenian Fragmentary votive sculpture of Dionysus (?) Greek Ashmolean Museum. Photograph by Mary Harrsch, CC BY-SA. Cover design by Anna Gatti.

# **Contents**





# **Preface**

I teach Classics at Bowling Green State University and remain passionate about helping students learn how to read ancient Greek. I hope this elementary text assists them. This text owes a part of its existence to a CURS grant, which funded a collaboration between myself and Adam Lewton, who read through the manuscript and suggested many improvements.

I thank the team at Open Book Publishers for their amazing work, Alessandra Tosi, Lucy Barnes, Anna Gatti, and Luca Baffa; Evan Hayes, Stephen Nimis, and Geoffrey Steadman, to whose running vocabulary texts my second- and thirdyear Greek students responded so very well that their reading ability improved significantly and quickly;1 James Keenan for all he has been and done; the guest contributors: Amy R. Cohen, Joe Goodkin, Stefan Hagel, Tom Holland, Diane Rayor; and Roshan Samtani for creating a musical translation of Anakreon's Thrakian Filly poem.

I also thank the founding members of OMEGA, a consortium for the teaching of ancient Greek: E. Del Chrol, Christian Franzen, Jennifer Larson, Deborah Lyons, and William Owens. E. Del Chrol's knack for storytelling and teaching is on display in his Etymology Corner. Deborah Lyons and William Owens carefully read the text, fixed errors, and suggested revisions. As a result of their efforts, input, intellects, and keen eyes, this text has been substantially improved. Their conviviality and general good will make me blush with appreciation and gratitude. My son Zachary Peek read a good portion of the manuscript and amazed me by his ability to improve the text in a myriad of ways. Also of great value were the suggestions of my students Jada McDowell and Thomas Ziegler. I thank the anonymous reader of OPB for challenging me to improve and to reimagine the text in all ways and the perspicacious Hilary Goy for her excellent suggestions. I credit and thank Wilfred Major for making me rethink sequencing, particularly in regard to third-declension nouns. Finally, I thank the

<sup>1</sup> Texts with running vocabulary on the same or on a facing page offer students developing their language skills two distinct advantages: (1) the running vocabulary saves them invaluable time and (2) it keeps their attention focused on the logic of the sentence and the paragraph. In making these texts, care should be taken to present students with a connotative and denotative range of meanings so that their vocabulary develops flexibility and nuance.

Center for Undergraduate Research and Scholarship (CURS) at BGSU for a 2015 grant supporting this project in its initial phases, my colleagues Nicholas Dee and James Pfundstein, and the many ancient Greek students I've taught over the years, including Brad Corfman, Dan English, Jordan Kilpatrick, Adam Lewton, Ethan Zaborowski, and the Fall 2021 Consortium students. Any mistakes remain mine.

Finally I thank my parents, my wife Elaine, and my children Zachary, Brandon, and Madeline for all they were, are, and will be.

# **Introduction**

This text contains twenty-five years of learning and teaching experience. During this time, I have had the pleasure of introducing ancient Greek to a variety of students and thank them for giving me the opportunity to teach them. In this book a guiding philosophy is to present as much as possible with as little as possible: οὐ πολλὰ ἀλλὰ πολύ ("depth not breadth"). Attempting to do so has been a labor of love.

Since teaching ancient Greek at BGSU, I used several different textbooks before settling on Chase and Phillips' elementary textbook. I began writing my own textbook as a reworking of their *A New Introduction to Greek*, a text that, though lacking in some essentials, I admire for its restraint. Using Chase and Phillips as a model for accomplishing much with less, I then built this book around the principles of memory, synthesis, and analysis. Students will memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring ancient Greek words, the essential word endings, the eight parts of speech, and the grammatical concepts they will most frequently encounter when reading authentic ancient texts. The logic behind this approach is obvious: students should learn first the vocabulary and concepts that they will encounter most often. The hope is that familiarity with the commonplace will turn more efficiently and effectively into a mastery of reading this beautiful language. Vocabulary outside of the top 250 is glossed as it is in texts with running vocabulary. Glossing these words on the same or adjoining page enables students to focus as much of their attention as possible on acquiring the reading skills that they will need as they progress in the language.

Many years ago, I had the privilege of learning from Drs. Hansen and Quinn and their text *Greek: An Intensive Course*. The authors, their book, and their teaching methodology were transformative for me. I hope that, in some way, I keep alit the flame of the Latin and Greek Institute and the excellence they instill in their students.

## **My Teaching Philosophy**

The difficulties involved in teaching a subject that is as data intensive as Greek took me, early in my career at BGSU, to the Lilly Conference at Miami University on how to improve teaching. There I listened to the keynote talk by Dr. Jeanette Norden, Professor Emerita of Cell and Developmental Biology at Vanderbilt. A neuroscientist by training and a researcher by passion, she came to teaching reluctantly. Assigned to teach the course no one wanted, she bucked the norms of her department and taught neurology from the point of view of what learning the students would have to apply once they became practising doctors. What had been a difficult rote-memory course became an even more demanding memory, logic, and diagnosis course, even though she significantly reduced the amount of memorization she required of her students. As I began assembling this textbook on learning Greek, her approach has been one of my guiding principles. I have taken every effort to keep the information to be memorized to a minimum and to combine memory, analysis, and synthesis as much as possible. I asked myself two questions: what memorized working information do I rely upon when reading ancient texts, and what method do I employ when diagnosing sentences, especially when I struggle to understand what is being said?

In thinking about this guiding principle and what people are capable of learning, it strikes me that survival and adaption are what humans do best. Suited to thrive in an infinite number of environments, homo sapiens is born ready to learn and to create and to communicate. As we age, we can lose touch with our innate ability to learn—so natural to us when young—especially upon encountering novel problems, like the learning of a new alphabet and of ways of creating meaning that differ from our current paradigm and understanding of how our native language works.

For this reason, learning and teaching start with belief. If we do not have faith, we and our students are doomed. Teachers must believe that their students are capable of more than they realize. Students must believe that they can excel and master physics, a second language, or the world that irrational numbers inhabit. They also must believe that they can memorize the large quantities of factual material that many subjects, including languages, demand.

An extreme example helps us to see what is possible. In the land that super-memorizers inhabit, people are able to memorize 500 random numbers in as little as 10 minutes. Grand master of memory Kevin Horsley holds the world record for memory and recall of 10,000 numbers of pi. Another supermemorizer, featured in the Netflix series, *The Mind Explained*, Yanjaa suggests that rote-memory is dead and creative-memory is its superior successor. Kevin, Yanjaa, and others show us how to use our creative mind to increase our ability to memorize many random items quickly. Their techniques are not dissimilar from those of the memory palace, possibly invented by Simonides of Keios. Since in an average elementary ancient Greek course students are responsible for memorizing about 1,200 items of discrete factual information, belief coupled with memorization techniques are essential to student success.

Facts and rote memory form just the base level of Bloom's revised taxonomy.

Fig. 1 Bloom's Revised Taxonomy with descriptions. This represents a visual of Bloom's Revised Taxonomy, Taken on July 14, 2008. Some rights reserved, https://www.flickr.com/photos/ ddmeyer/2666448493/

We all know that memorization is one essential aspect of learning. As teachers, we are obliged to teach students how to move from the base of Bloom's learning pyramid to the pinnacle, creativity. Ancient Greek, due to its complexity, is especially suited to helping us meet this obligation. The number of conceptual items Greek requires—including case functions for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives; definitions of parts of speech; verbal qualities; and grammatical constructions, such as the indirect statement, purpose and result clauses, and conditional statements—adds up to some sixty items. It is much harder for students to attain competence and understanding of these concepts than it is for them to acquire vocabulary.

Consequently, dividing our courses into memory-based learning and conceptand skill-based learning enables students to differentiate between rote learning and higher-level cognitive skills. Translate-and-parse quizzes help students acquire the skills of applying factual information to solve novel problems through analysis and synthesis. When translating, students develop a skill set that enables them to solve complex problems, for even simple **S**ubject **O**bject **V**erb sentences require from our students dexterity of thought. Translating develops their ability to synthesize. Parsing develops their analytical skills, which are widely applicable to any endeavor, as parsing develops in them a nuanced understanding of how languages work. Seeing a subject from the inside, as parsing encourages them to do, opens up doors to ever greater refinements in thinking and enriches their understanding, just as interpreting the *Iliad* from the inner world of its characters' choices, dreams, fears, hates, and hopes, gives us a greater understanding of the epic than does a plot summary that maps exactly what happens to whom when.

In the classroom it is also helpful to teach students metacognitive strategies. Teaching students metacognitive strategies empowers them to take charge of their own learning and to teach themselves. As they learn to apply factual information to solving the decoding of a collection of letters, words, phrases, and clauses written in a strange alphabet, with strange but meaningful endings and a novel word order, teaching them how to think about thinking develops in them the skills they will need as they journey through life.

Authentic content is another key to creating a rigorous course. About 10 years ago in second-year Greek I started using texts with running vocabulary for selfish reasons. Hitherto the amount of material I was able to get the students to read during a 50-minute class was abysmal and painful for both students and teacher. Upon adopting texts with running vocabulary in intermediate Greek, I was surprised by how successful the students were at reading and translating not a little bit more but a considerable amount more. We went from 10 lines of excruciatingly slow translation of the *Iliad* to 40–50 lines of impressive reading and translation work. I adopted this same running vocabulary approach in assembling the materials of this text. A benefit of doing so at the elementary level is that it freed me up to choose a variety of content-rich sentences from a number of different authors.

Compelling content is a great asset to any course. The humanities, with their content-rich media, such as film and literature, have an enormous capacity to create complicated ethical questions about what this or that character thinks, and what the whole film or poem or story may be saying. The humanities reflect our capacity for play, for empathy, and for the contrafactual. Imagined contrafactual worlds and ethical questions of utilitarianism (maximizing the good of everyone) and deontology (intrinsic rights and wrongs) are two of the biggest reasons why the humanities matter. They enable us to imagine alternate selves and fictive worlds that give us the capacity to transform ourselves and those around us. Understanding other people and ourselves lets us imagine new ways of being human. To change our world, our selves, and our society we have to think about what we ought to be like, as well as what we actually are like. Imagining ourselves as a different person allows us to become that different person; imagining new worlds allows us to create these worlds. The humanities invite us to play and help us imagine and feel and see and be more. Contrafactuals, imagination, fictions, and ethics matter, for how we read, teach, think, translate, write, live, and love. Ancient Greek even at the elementary level provides us with this rich content and with the ability to embrace ambiguity, diversity, and ambivalence about the lack of a definitive solution to life's difficult and meaningful questions.

Learning new factual information (endings and vocabulary) and thinking differently about this information can be stressful. Stress inhibits learning. We can assist students by informing them that learning information in order to teach it is less stressful. We can also create assignments that require them to demonstrate proficiency through teaching. Good teaching requires good learning. But there is a clear line between what students are responsible for and what we, their teachers, are. We cannot learn for our students nor can we make them understand the concept of a direct object. We can explain the concept as clearly as possible. We can give them practical exercises to assist their learning the concept. We can support and encourage and guide them. We can make them aware that mistakes are necessary, that setbacks and barriers are part of the process. We can make sure that they do not feel stupid or inadequate as they struggle. With love and empathy, we can care about them as students and as people. Ultimately it is they who determine whether they learn and how deeply their thinking goes.

And the potential is enormous. Recently, inspired by reading *Use Your Perfect Memory* by Tony Buzan; *Deep Thinking: What Mathematics Can Teach Us about the Mind* by William Byers*; The Philosophical Baby: What Children's Minds Tell Us about Truth, Love, and the Meaning of Life* by Alison Gopnik, *Unlimited Memory* by Kevin Horsley, and *Teach Students How to Learn* by Saundra McGuire, I added Learning Tips to my teaching repertoire. These Tips attempt to clarify the instructor's role in learning, as well as the student's (McGuire); to explain the mysteries of the learning process itself (Byers, Gopnik, and McGuire); to teach students how to learn (McGuire); to provide students with a variety of memorization strategies (Buzan and Horsley); and to introduce creativity and deep thinking to the process (Buzan, Byers, Gopnik, and Horsley). I have used this textbook in beta form for a few years. Most of its contents have proven their worth in the classroom. At the time of writing this introduction, the success of the Learning Tips is uncertain, though anecdotal evidence suggests that some students have had good results when they have consistently applied the principles they espouse. Dissatisfied with the results of applying the brute force of rote memory to my own learning, I have been pleasantly surprised by my ability to learn more efficiently when I use the strategies found in the Learning Tips.

Creative memory, deep learning, and thinking involve discontinuity. It is an approach to learning that goes beyond rote memory, analysis, and synthesis into the realm of the unknown that requires a transformation from old ways of thinking to new ways of understanding. It is a paradigm shift. We all understand that 1+1 = 2 and that 15 divided by 5 = 3. Those of us challenged by math have difficulty understanding that 1 +1 can = 10 when we are in a binary conceptual system. Learning to think differently and to imagine new paradigmatic ways of thinking is challenging. In Greek, one of the main concepts students must learn is that endings create meaning. The right side of their brain is engaged when they learn new information. As they memorize, process, and understand this new information, their understanding moves from the right half of the brain to the left. Thus learning involves both halves of the brain.

The right side of the brain processes new information. As we process this new information, the left half of the brain brings analysis, logic, and reason to what we have learned. In the end both hemispheres come to a shared understanding of our new knowledge. When we engage in further defining information, we use the left hemisphere. The left half of our brain rationalizes information and rejects anomalies. It looks out, holding the intense beam of a flashlight. If a gorilla walks through a volleyball game, the left side of our brain tends to miss the strangeness completely. When we consider ambiguities and contradictions, we use the brain's right side, which lights our way with the radiant glow of a lantern. Dissonance in the right side of our brain opens us to novelty, to new ways of thinking, to creativity. Dissonance is essential to our survival as a profession and as a species.

To sum up, just as we know that carbon dioxide emissions affect the weather but even with this knowledge cannot predict exactly what kind of storm will hit exactly where, so do we know the general qualities that create constructive learning experiences. The individual autobiographies and stories that make up our pedagogical lives are the irreplaceable narratives that comprise good teaching and good living, with no set solution to the complicated equation of good teaching and of good living, and with no application of a set formula for happiness and success. Belief, knowledge, analysis, synthesis, metacognition, care and creativity, and ethics and contrafactuals are general characteristics that enable us to provide students with opportunities to take charge of their own learning. Once they do, the doors to a well-lived life open wide. With this exhortation, I hope that I have given you things to think about as you practice in the great guild we have chosen to join.

### **For Instructors**

In teaching with this book, I recommend experimentation and flexibility. The module on adverbs I assign as homework in a flip-the-classroom approach.1 I then assess student learning of the material in the next day's class. At semester's

<sup>1</sup> Students are required to outline the module on adverbs before coming to class. In class I answer any questions they have about adverbs. Once their questions are answered, they take a proficiency quiz. In eighth grade, my daughter learned algebra by this method. She hated it and the teacher for the first month or so. Then she came to like the method and love the teacher.

start I spend a lot of class time chanting and teaching students how to memorize endings and vocabulary. Later in the term I assess their development of reading and translating skills by giving them translate-and-parse quizzes.

The material covered in this book is designed to enable students to begin reading authentic texts as soon as possible. It is important for students to develop a process-oriented approach each time they translate. If an approach is logical and repeatable, students will continue to improve as they learn new material. I encourage students to become their own teachers and to use the answer key in the back of the book. Learning how to teach oneself is an excellent skill that they will take with them and apply throughout their lives. Using the answer key to learn how to learn develops this skill. For the student learning ancient Greek, finding a balance between working hard on a translation before turning to the answer is one that each will need to find for herself. I encourage you to encourage your students to find this balance as they teach themselves how to learn.

In assessing mastery of essential information, the quiz format works particularly well for me. Through quizzes, students can display mastery of concepts, endings, functions, skills, and vocabulary. Once the course is about a third of the way to completion, I regularly give translate-and-parse quizzes that present students with ancient Greek they have not seen before and that ask them to utilize the identification and reading skills that we have been developing in class.

### **For Students**

Memorize the definitions of the eight parts of speech and acquire a deep understanding of how they work. Use your understanding of English to develop your understanding of Greek. Memorize the essential vocabulary for the Greek adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. These words are not glossed in the text and the better you know them, the easier your development as a reader of ancient Greek will be. These words, for the most part, function just as they do in English and so, once you know their definitions, translating them is typically straightforward.

Greek nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs are not as straightforward. They all use endings to create meaning. You must memorize these endings and their functions. Memorizing them is essential to your development in the language. If you cannot identify the word you are looking at and do so quickly, your translation and reading skills will not improve and you will become easily frustrated.

Once you identify a word correctly, create expectations for its function in the sentence based upon context and frequency. For instance, the majority of the time you encounter a noun or pronoun in the genitive case you will need to supply the preposition "of" in order to translate the word correctly into English. Consequently, when you encounter a genitive noun or pronoun, supply "of" right away. A percentage of the time you will be incorrect and context will require you to adapt your expectations, but most of the time you will be correct.

As you encounter nouns and pronouns, this process of identifying the form and then translating based upon the form's possible functions and function frequency is repeated time and again. For certain cases it is easier than others. Nominative nouns and pronouns typically have the function of subject and so, when you identify a noun or pronoun as nominative, expect that the word is the subject of the sentence. Other cases have more possibilities in their functions and, as a result, are a bit more complicated to anticipate. In these instances, be sure to apply critically the **Case and Function Chart**. 2 Most times a given noun or pronoun's function is obvious; at other times it can be narrowed down to one or two choices. Once you have narrowed down your choices, use context to figure out which one makes the most sense.

Easier to translate are adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions because, as already noted, they function just as their counterparts in English do. Adjectives, nouns, pronouns, and verbs, however, create meaning through endings and so function differently from the way they do in English. Thus in order to translate them successfully, an adjustment in your thinking about how language works is necessary.

As you reflect on your own language and how meaning is created, you will note that meaning is created in English mainly through word order and prepositional phrases. In ancient Greek, meaning is created in three main ways: (1) through endings placed upon adjectives, nouns, pronouns, and verbs; (2) through prepositional phrases; and finally (3) through word order, though not decisively so as in English. This text strives to communicate as comprehensibly as possible the repeating patterns Greek uses in its creation of meaning through these three paths.

As you strive to understand these patterns, another suggestion that I recommend is for you not to write out an English translation of the Greek sentences and narratives. Rather read through the Greek several times so that, when you come to class, you can translate the Greek as easily as you would read aloud an English sentence.

Developing this skill takes more time initially than writing down a translation, but devoting more time at first to developing a reading approach will result in your taking much less time to translate sentences whose complexity keeps increasing as the semester wears on. As you translate from the Greek, you will find your vocabulary increasing naturally and find that your ability to understand how Greek creates meaning through word order also develops naturally.

<sup>2</sup> In a few instances the text cites Smyth, *Greek Grammar* and Boas, Rijksbaron, Huitink, and Bakker, *The Cambridge Grammar of Classical Greek*, abbreviated to SSG and CGCG in the text.

When translating ancient Greek into English, the requirements for how English creates meaning result in our rearranging the beautiful and effective arrangement of a given ancient Greek sentence. Were we ancient Greeks, no such rearranging would occur and we would hear and understand each word in the order it is presented to us. Reading the Greek several times, so that you can read it as easily as you would a sentence in English, develops this natural understanding of Greek and Greek word order and greatly increases your enjoyment of the language.

As you work your way through the text, remember that we all are language geniuses and that were we born in another time and place we would speak fluently a language other than English. And so, when Greek proves challenging and as you memorize more and more information, be sure to remind yourself of your innate language ability and to call to mind those first few days of class and how much you have learned since that time.

### **Dialects**

This textbook uses a mixed dialect designed to enable you to read authentic texts written by a variety of writers using a variety of dialects, including Attic, Epic, and Ionic, though most forms are Attic or Ionic. Ionic -σσ- is used and not Attic -ττ-. Ionic σφεῖς is presented as the third-person pronoun as are the oblique forms of αὐτός, used in the Attic dialect. Infinitives, finite verb forms, and noun forms are generally uncontracted until after contract verbs are presented (Modules 10, 17, 19, and 24). Then a mixed approach is used, with deference given to the original Greek form. For detailed information on Herodotos' mixed dialect and on the Ionic-Attic dialect, see Appendices XI and XII. I address dialect differences throughout the book as opportunities arise.

### **Moral Philosophy**

This text seeks to embrace change, difference, and diversity, recognizing that there is no one right way to solve life's difficult and interesting questions. It strives to make students comfortable with making mistakes and comfortable with engaging in debate and disagreement. It offers compelling reading selections in English and in Greek, chosen as starting points for contemplation, debate, and reflection. It recognizes we can do right for wrong reasons and wrong for right ones. The richness that deep thinking offers us can be absurd, ironic, perplexing, contradictory, and joyous. Current advances in quantum theory and practice seem destined to take us further along these interesting subjective paths.

### **Pronunciation**

Over 20 ancient Greek dialects existed and, until one became standard in about 400 BCE, many alphabets. Although no one knows for sure how ancient Greeks spoke their language and their pronunciations varied from person to person and city-state to city-state and over time, I offer a set pronunciation system. It is the same as is used by Mastronarde at his website, **AtticGreek.org Pronunciation Guide**, with some simplifications made for the sake of speakers of American English.3

For the vowel sound of **eta** I use the more familiar **ay** as in d**a**te instead of ê as in the French t**ê**te, and for the short vowel sound of upsilon I use the more familiar short **u** as in p**u**t or long **u** as in b**oo**t instead of the short French *u* as in *lune* and long French **u** as in French *ruse*. For the diphthong υι**,** I use the *wi* sound of **wi**t instead of combining the rounded vowel ÿ with semivocalic **i** as Mastronarde recommends.

Like Mastronarde, I also use the conventional pronunciations for the sounds of the letters theta and phi, pronouncing theta θ as the **th** of **th**in instead of the unaspirated **t** in **t**op, and pronouncing phi, φ, as the fricative **f** as in **f**oot instead of the aspirated **p** of **p**ot. JACT in their pronunciation system maintain the distinction between these aspirated and unaspirated sounds. Their system differs from the one I offer in these ways,

Η η: h**ai**r

Θ θ: **t**oy (note the exhalation of breath when pronouncing the *t*).

Ο ο: p**o**t

Υ υ: French l**u**ne or German M**ü**ller

Φ φ: **p**ool (note the exhalation of breath when pronouncing the *p*). Ω ω: s**aw**

If the pronunciation of ancient Greek intrigues you, see


<sup>3</sup> http://atticgreek.org/pronunc/pronunc\_guide.html.

# **Some Tips on Using This Book**

If using a hardcopy, to minimize flipping back and forth, open the book with the spine flat and two pages visible. If using a digital copy, use the word search feature to find information.

Whichever version you are using, print and then keep at your elbow the **Case and Function Chart**, the handout on **Adjectives, Adverbs, Nouns, and Pronouns**, and the handout on **Verbs**.

Resist the urge to write down your English translation. Learn to translate into English while reading directly from the Greek. Resisting this graphical urge will improve your vocabulary retention and your reading ability.

# **Vocabulary**

Ancient Greek has a rich vocabulary that permitted the creation of neologisms (new words) as needed. Aristophanes, the comic poet from Athens, created the longest attested word in the Greek language,

λοπαδοτεμαχοσελαχογαλεοκρανιολειψανοδριμυποτριμματοσιλφ ιοκαραβομελιτοκατακεχυμενοκιχλεπικοσσυφοφαττοπεριστεραλ εκτρυονοπτοκεφαλλιοκιγκλοπελειολαγῳοσιραιοβαφητραγανοπ τερύγων.

It is the name of a dish with a recipe that called for fish, flesh, fowl, and sauces. It has 172 letters and 78 syllables. For information on the creation of neologisms in a variety of languages, follow this link:

Neologisms. 4

In this text you memorize the top 250 most commonly occurring Greek words, about 18 words over a period of 14 weeks, starting with adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions. The words marked by an asterix are in the top 250 and are to be memorized. I based this list on the list compiled by Dickinson commentaries, located here,

Ancient Greek Core Vocabulary5

and on my own many searches in,

Logeion, 6

which I encourage you to explore on your own.

<sup>4</sup> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2DzeDU6QMZM.

<sup>5</sup> https://dcc.dickinson.edu/greek-core-list.

<sup>6</sup> https://logeion.uchicago.edu/lexidium.

The definitions given in the modules are simplified. As you encounter each of the words in the wild you will develop a more nuanced understanding of the range of meanings some words have. Many words are straightforward, without much complexity. For example, *ναῦς* means *ship.* Other words have many degrees of complexity. *λόγος* has a wide range of denotative and connotative meanings, including *word, speech, story*; *reason, account; value, esteem, talk, conversation*; *τῷ λόγῳ for the sake of argument*, *in word*, i.e., *falsely*; *ἐν λόγῳ in the rank of*; *κατὰ λόγον according to the value* or *esteem.* As your vocabulary increases so will your ability to understand a word's possible meanings in a specific context. Join the course on Quizlet to access vocabulary flashcards and drills, https:// quizlet.com/class/19147013/.

As is true of most things in life, the top 250 list is not perfect and can be improved. Send me your suggestions.

### **Vowel Length**

In the accent and pronunciation exercises and paradigms, macrons mark alpha, iota, and upsilon if long and not accented with a circumflex. Short alpha, iota, and upsilon are unmarked. In the glosses and readings vowels are generally unmarked for quantity.

### **A Word on the Title**

For several years I have gone back and forth between two titles for this book: *Ancient Greek I: A Reading Approach* and *Ancient Greek I: A Cognitive Approach*. Upon reading *Deep Thinking: What Mathematics Can Teach Us about the Mind*  (William Byers); *The Philosophical Baby: What Children's Minds Tell Us about Truth, Love, and the Meaning of Life* (Alison Gopnik); and *Teach Students How to Learn* (Saundra McGuire), I leaned toward *Ancient Greek I: A Cognitive Approach*. Finally, as I continued revising the modules, I settled on a third, *Ancient Greek I: A 21*st *Century Approach*, since I wish students to approach learning Greek from the standpoint of learning any subject in depth. Though this book has content that no other textbook on learning Greek contains, it is often traditional in its approach to grammar and morphology. As a stretch goal it asks students to imagine themselves as ancient Greeks and to process the language as a native speaker would.

### **To Instructors and Students**

Should you have any corrections or suggestions for improving the text, please contact me.

Sincerely,

Philip S. Peek Professor, Ancient Greek, Latin, Classical Studies Bowling Green State University peekps@bgsu.edu

# Module 1 **The Greek Alphabet**

# **The Alphabet**

About 300,000 years ago *homo sapiens* regularly used fire—one of our greatest technologies, enabling us to create many more technologies dependent upon it. The agricultural revolution dates to about 12,000 years ago. Before this revolution, we hunted and gathered in small bands requiring vast territories to sustain us. Farming enabled our species to feed many more mouths per acre and for ever-increasing numbers of us to settle in small areas. It also enabled the first empires, which date to about 4000 years ago. The administration of a large state required written records, and so in this period we see the rise of various writing systems, none of which were alphabetic, instead relying on ideograms and syllabaries. Today there are dozens of alphabets with no set characteristics. The Khmer alphabet, which represents Cambodian, has 74 characters. The writing systems of most languages, such as English, are based on the Latin alphabet, which was derived from the Greek, and have 24–26 characters. The alphabet made possible a vast number of additional technologies dependent upon writing.

The origin of the Greek alphabet dates to about 800 BCE, though there is disagreement on exactly when it was invented. When the Greeks adapted the Phoenician syllabary, which represented consonants only, they introduced a refinement, taking the symbols for glottal stops, which do not appear in Greek, and using them instead to represent vowels. The new alphabet gave the Greeks the ability to represent in their entirety each sound that made up a word. Exactly how, when, and why the adaptions occurred is uncertain and the story of how it happened is fascinating and not without its oddities. Some of the consonantal adaptions of the Phoenician syllabary to the Greek alphabet represent a correspondence between sounds, just as the sound of the English consonant **l** is similar to the sound of the Greek consonant **λ**. One oddity is that the sounds of the Greek letters chi **χ** and phi **φ** were not represented at all, though they easily could have been, and were added to the alphabet much later. Oddities aside, the most astounding feature of the new invention was the adding of vowels to the syllabary. It is one that in retrospect seems obvious. It was not. The Greek inventors took a syllabary of a Semitic language, outside the Indo-European family tree to which Greek belongs, and adapted it, creating something novel. The innovation was discontinuous and revolutionary. Due to the addition of vowels, the Greek alphabet is called the first true one.1

Throughout Greece and its many independent city-states, there were over twenty different dialects in use and a number of variations in the alphabet. Some Greek letters differed from one district to the next and a few disappeared, notably digamma **ϝ**, a w-sound, koppa **Ϙ**, a q-sound, and san **Ϻ**, or sampi **ϡ**, whose sound is unclear. In about 400 BCE Athens officially adopted the 24-letter Ionian alphabet, which is the one presented in this book. The ancient Greeks wrote in all capitals. We owe the lower-case letters to a later time of Byzantine scribes and the ingenious printers of the Renaissance. Look over this alphabet and notice that you are familiar with many of the letters and the sounds they make. Many of the English words have been chosen to present as accurately as possible the rendering of the Greek sound. For example **spot** for **π** is pronounced with no aspiration accompanying the p-sound.

### **Alphabet Chart**

Sound equivalents are bolded.


<sup>1</sup> For detailed information on the invention of the alphabet, see Roger D. Woodard, 'Phoinikēia Grammata: An Alphabet for the Greek Language', in *A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language,* ed. by Egbert J. Bakker (Malden: Blackwell, 2010), pp. 25–46.


# **Pronunciation**

The equivalents given above represent a close approximation of the sounds each letter made, though some sounds have been chosen because native speakers of English find them easier to pronounce. Except in these few cases, this text uses the same pronunciation as does Mastronarde in his text and on his website,

AtticGreek.org Pronunciation Guide.2

For the differences between this text and the website, see the Introduction, Pronunciation.

A tenet of this book is embracing change, difference, and diversity. Since no one knows exactly how ancient Greek was pronounced, below are a few alternative pronunciations. Should you wish to adopt them, note the following differences, which follow the pronunciation system used by JACT in their *Reading Greek* series.

Η η: h**ai**r Θ θ: **t**oy (note the exhalation of breath when pronouncing the *t*). Ο ο: p**o**t Υ υ: French l**u**ne or German M**ü**ller Φ φ: **p**ool (note the exhalation of breath when pronouncing the *p*). Ω ω: s**aw**

<sup>2</sup> http://atticgreek.org/pronunc/pronunc\_guide.html.

### **Memorize the Names of the Alphabet**

In this module your goal is to memorize the alphabet and know it as well as you know the English alphabet. As a first step, memorize the names of the letters by singing or chanting them as you did when you first learned the English alphabet. Chunking the names into groups of four may make the task more manageable.


### **Long and Short Vowel Sounds**

Greek vowels have **length** or **quantity**; their quantity is either long or short. Long vowels take approximately twice as long to pronounce. Say out loud the English word **drama**. Note the difference in the amount of time you take to pronounce the first syllable **dra** and the second syllable **ma**. The **a** of the first syllable takes longer to pronounce, just as in Greek the long alpha takes longer to pronounce than does the short alpha.

Greek has five long vowels and five short vowels. Eta and o-mega (**big o**) are always long. Epsilon and o-micron (**little o**) are always short. Alpha, iota, and upsilon can be long or short. A long mark or macron **(μακρόν)** is placed above these vowels when they are long, as in **ᾱ**. Short vowels and vowels that are always long (**η, ω**) are not marked. When you read out loud, pay attention to the vowel sounds and their quantity. Hearing quantity is especially important when attempting to feel the rhythm of a line of poetry or of a prose sentence.


1. Note that in authentic texts macrons are not used. In this textbook macrons are used in the paradigms. Otherwise they are typically omitted.

## **Memorize the Long and Short Vowel Sounds**

Memorize the alphabet and the sounds the letters make.


# **Diphthongs**

Some pairs of vowels, called diphthongs, are pronounced together, producing a combined sound of two vowels in a single syllable. The English words *loud*, *loin*, and *lair* all have diphthongs that produce a combination of two differing vowel sounds. Greek diphthongs function similarly. The second letter of a diphthong is always iota, **ι**, or upsilon, **υ**. For meter and accentuation, diphthongs are considered long with one exception. The diphthongs **αι** and **οι**, when final or the last two letters of a word, are short except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series. Note that the breathing and accent, explained below, are placed over the second vowel of the diphthong: α**ἰ**θήρ, η**ὗ**ρον.

# **Pronunciation of Diphthongs**

Except for pronouncing the diphthong **υι** like the *wi* sound of **wi**t, instead of combining the rounded vowel **ÿ** with semivocalic **i** as Mastronarde recommends, this text uses the same pronunciation for diphthongs as does Mastronarde.



1. All diphthongs are long with these exceptions: -**αι** and -**οι**, when they are the last two letters of a word (final -**αι** and -**οι**), are short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series. As you work through the text, the short quantity of final -**αι** and –**οι** will make sense. Note that **ει** and **η** are pronounced alike, as are **ου** and **ῡ**.

Follow this link to listen to a chanting and a singing of the alphabet by me and by Dr. E. Del Chrol of Marshall University, followed by me pronouncing the long and short vowels and diphthongs:

Alphabet, Long Vowels, Short Vowels, Diphthongs. 3

### **Memorize the Sounds of the Diphthongs**

Memorize the diphthongs and their sounds so that you know them by heart.


### **Rough and Smooth Breathings**

Greek also has an h-sound, which occurs only at the beginning of certain words. This sound is not indicated by a separate letter but by the symbol (**῾**) called a rough breathing. Say out loud the English word, **hi**. Notice the sharp exhalation of breath. The technical word for this exhalation is aspiration. Say the word **pea** out loud while holding your hand in front of your mouth. Note that when you make the sound of the letter **p** at the start of words, you expel air. Now say the word **hope** and note that you do not expel air. The **p** of **pea** is aspirated and the

<sup>3</sup> https://loom.com/share/4b0c8a33da2e49f6a265d4295fc4aeb5.

**p** of **hope** is unaspirated. In Greek the **h** sound appears only at the beginning of certain words.


Note that the rough breathing is placed above lower-case letters and before upper-case ones.

Words beginning with a vowel or diphthong, which do not have the h-sound, have a smooth breathing (᾿) indicating the absence of the h-sound.


Contrast the placement of the breathing over the lower- and upper-case vowels with its placement over the second vowel of a diphthong:


All words beginning with an upsilon have a rough breathing.

**ὑ**πόθεσις *hypothesis*

Likewise, all words beginning with rho have a rough breathing. Say the English word **rooster** and note that when you pronounce the letter **r** you expel breath. Now say the word **bird** and note that you do not expel any breath when you pronounce the **r**. Initial rho is pronounced like the **r** in rooster. Note that the rough breathing is captured in the English spelling of **rh**etoric and **rh**ythm.


### **Memorize the Letters of the Alphabet**

Memorize the letters themselves. For each letter, memorize the upper- and lower-case symbol. To assist you in memorizing the letters, try these techniques:


**Practice Pronouncing the Words Below.** Note that macrons mark the long vowels and short vowels are unmarked.


To hear the words pronounced, follow the link:

Practice Pronouncing. 4

## **Orthography**

In the above in addition to the rough and smooth breathing marks, certain vowels have marks over or in front of them, ᾶ, ῆ, ά, ἄ, ύ, ί, ἕ, ί, Ὅ, ύ. These marks are accents, indicating a special intonation given to the vowel's pronunciation. In Greek, three accents—acute, grave, or circumflex—mark a raising (acute) or a neutral (grave) or a raising and lowering (circumflex) of pitch. In English, instead of raising or lowering a syllable's pitch, we place an emphatic stress on one **syl**lable. Pronounce the word **rhetoric** and note that the syllable **rhe** is stressed.

<sup>4</sup> https://loom.com/share/ce863b2b5e9d4ce4a820a5958f56af60.

Originally, ancient Greeks wrote using all capital letters, no punctuation, and often no spacing. Eventually as cursive writing became more common, lowercase letters replaced upper-case and accents were added as part of the spelling. Accents and their marks will be explained in Modules 3, 5, and 11. Learning accents will assist you in reading the language out loud, in distinguishing forms that are identical but for accent, and in identifying forms that are difficult to decipher.

#### **More Pronunciation Practice.**



To hear the words pronounced, follow the link:

More Pronunciation Practice. 5

**Herodotos of Halikarnessos (Halicarnassus), Ἡρόδοτος ὁ Ἁλικαρνησσέος c. 484–425 BCE.** Herodotos was an ancient Greek historian who hailed from Halikarnessos, a Greek city founded by the Dorians, ruled by a monarchy, and part of the Persian empire until conquered by Alexander the Great. Credited with inventing the discipline of history, Herodotos wrote in a mixed Ionic dialect. To learn more about this dialect Herodotos, see Appendix XI, Herodotos' Mixed Dialect.

**Module 1 Practice Reading Aloud.** Practice reading aloud the beginning of Herodotos' *Histories*, paying attention to the sound each syllable makes.

Ἡροδότου Ἁλικαρνησσέος ἱστορίης ἀπόδεξις ἥδε, ὡς μήτε τὰ γενόμενα ἐξ ἀνθρώπων τῷ χρόνῳ ἐξίτηλα γένηται, μήτε ἔργα μεγάλα τε καὶ θωμαστά, τὰ μὲν Ἕλλησι τὰ δὲ βαρβάροισι ἀποδεχθέντα, ἀκλεᾶ γένηται, τά τε ἄλλα καὶ δι᾽ ἣν αἰτίην ἐπολέμησαν ἀλλήλοισι.

#### **Translation**

This work of research belongs to Herodotos of Halikarnessos. So that humankind's achievements do not become forgotten in time and so that the great and wondrous works of barbarians and Greeks do not perish unsung, I have investigated a variety of things, including why they fought one another.

To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel's expert reading with a pitch accent, follow the link below:

Herodotos' Proem. 6

<sup>5</sup> https://loom.com/share/1f0ae9055a644c6e9f4d3d551d126b53.

<sup>6</sup> https://loom.com/share/fc83af84a232435b80a012505e35020a.

# **Etymology Corner I by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Knowledge of etymology will give you control over the world

**. . .** is probably a false statement, but lots of people in the ancient world believed it. One of the earliest branches of philosophy looks a lot like modern linguistics, since those philosophers believed that if you could get to the heart of a word, the true (**ἔτυμος** *true, real, actual*) word or reasoned account (**λόγος** *word, speech, story; reason, account*), where it came from, and its original meaning, you could learn something profound about it. Ancient etymology was half a quest for magical power—if you learned the true name for something, you could control it—and half a quest for the machine language of the brain—languages are overlays on how we think.

**What to Study and Do 1.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you can do the following from memory: chant or sing the alphabet, write out the lowerand upper-case letters, and say the sounds while picturing or writing down the letters.

**Learning Tip 1: Our Amazing Minds.** We all think that we have terrible memories. For most of us this belief is self-fulfilling and destructive, preventing us from reaching whatever goals we would otherwise be able to reach. This textbook offers you specific strategies for placing new information into your medium-term memory quickly, efficiently, and effectively so that you can recall it whenever you need to. Though the majority of information I present to you in the textbook has been tested in the classroom over the past twenty-five years of my teaching career, I only started using these memory strategies in earnest in December 2020. In this short time I have found the way I think about encoding new information has completely changed. Hitherto I used the brute force of repetition, which has served me okay but often fails when I need instant and accurate recall. I came upon these strategies while looking for effective strategies for memorizing vocabulary. YouTube was the first place I looked. One video led me to an interview with Kevin Horsley, a super-memorizer and author of *Unlimited Memory*. This book and Tony Buzan's *Use Your Perfect Memory* explain most of the memory strategies I present to you in the *21st-Century* series. Follow the link below if you wish to listen to Kevin's story:

Interview with Kevin Horsley. 1

Kevin Horsley has not invented these strategies but he has excelled at making them a part of his life, a feat that is all the more impressive given the story of Kevin's struggles during his formative years. When he was eight years old, Kevin's inability to concentrate and to memorize was so bad that a school psychologist thought he had brain damage. He now is a grandmaster of memory, holding the world record

<sup>1</sup> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sjEkwznBV7k.

for memorization and timely recall of the first 10,000 digits of pi **π**. Having barely graduated from high school and deemed a failure as a student, Kevin's successful implementation of these learning strategies have enabled him to build a successful life for himself, teaching others the learning and memory strategies he excels at using.

# Module 2 **More Sounds and Punctuation**

# **Iota Subscript and Adscript**

When the long vowels, ᾱ, η, and ω are combined with a short iota, the iota is written beneath the long vowels as an iota subscript. The prefix **sub-** means under.

ᾳ ῃ ῳ

If the long vowel is capitalized, the iota is written beside the long vowel and is called an iota adscript. The prefix **ad-** means beside.

Αι Ηι Ωι

The iota is not pronounced and the pronunciation of these combined letters is the same as it is for the plain vowels, ᾱ, η, and ω. Practice pronouncing the name of Hades, the Greek god of the dead, **Ἅιδης.**

Note that the writing of the iota as a subscript or adscript is a writing convention begun in the Middle Ages. Originally the iota was pronounced with the long vowels, **ᾱ, η, ω**, as a combination of two sounds. From the fourth century to the second century BCE the iota weakened to a glide, similar to the way the English **y** can affect vowels. Pronounce out loud **late** and **day**, noting how the **y** influences the sound of the vowel **a**. After the second century BCE the iota was not pronounced. When reading ancient Greek, you will soon discover that the iota adscript or subscript often helps you identify the form of the word it appears in.

### **Gamma Clusters**

When followed by a gamma **γ**, kappa **κ**, xi **ξ**, or chi **χ**, gamma **γ**, forms a cluster that creates the combined sound indicated by the bold letters below.


### **Punctuation**

Greek uses the same period and comma as English. A single mark ( **·** ) serves as either a colon (**:**) or a semicolon (**;**) depending on context.

῾´Ελληνες· Σοφοκλῆς, Περικλῆς, Δημοσθένης. *Greeks: Sophokles, Perikles, Demosthenes.*

ὁ δὲ λέγει· ἡ δὲ ποιέει. *He speaks; she acts.*

The question mark in Greek is represented by (**;**) and looks the same as the English semicolon (**;**).

σὺ δὲ τίς καὶ τί βούλει**;** *Who are you and what do you want?*

## **Capitalization**

Proper names and adjectives are capitalized, as are the first words of paragraphs and of quotations. The first word of a sentence is not typically capitalized. Note the capitalized words bolded in the paragraph below:

**Ἡροδότου Ἁλικαρνησσέος** ἱστορίης ἀπόδεξις ἥδε, ὡς μήτε τὰ γενόμενα ἐξ ἀνθρώπων τῷ χρόνῳ ἐξίτηλα γένηται, μήτε ἔργα μεγάλα τε καὶ θωμαστά, τὰ μὲν **Ἕλλησι** τὰ δὲ βαρβάροισι ἀποδεχθέντα, ἀκλεᾶ γένηται, τά τε ἄλλα καὶ δι᾽ ἣν αἰτίην ἐπολέμησαν ἀλλήλοισι.

**Ἕλλησι** is the Greek word for *Greeks*.

### **Who Were the Greeks?**

The non-Greek Minoan civilization of Krete (Crete) flourished from c. 2200– 1500 BCE and influenced the Greeks. The *Iliad* and the *Odyssey* mention Minos, legendary king of Krete (Crete), who ruled the island and those nearby with his many ships. Around 2100 BCE Greek-speaking people arrived on mainland Greece, bringing with them their customs, language, and religion. The geographic area we call ancient Greece or Hellas never became a nation state, but rather was a collection of independent city-states which were diverse, comprising many different customs and dialects. Though diverse, Greek culture shared important features, including architecture, athletics, literature, music, religion, and science. The ancient Greek love for athletics led to our establishing the modern Olympic games. Their polytheistic religion and the accompanying stories of gods and heroes, their mythology, permeated much of what they accomplished and believed. Through their music, poetry, and prose writings they made sense of the world and their place in it. The richness the Greeks created continues to influence people all over the globe.

### **Greek Dialects**

The earliest known dialect is the Mycenaean, attested in the Linear B syllabic script deciphered by the self-taught linguist, Michael Ventris. In the Classical period, roughly 750–350 BCE, there were about twenty-three Greek dialects, including Aeolic, Attic, Doric, and Ionic. At the end of the 4th century, the koine or common dialect began to be used, spreading to Asia and Egypt and eventually replacing the dialects that preceded it. The many dialects correspond roughly with Greek geography and their diversity was caused by many factors, including conquest, lineage, migrations, and natural barriers. Another influence on dialect was literature itself. The Homeric or epic dialect is a literary dialect, comprised of elements of the Ionic, Aeolic, and Arcado-Cypriot dialects. Later writers such as Apollonios Rhodios in his *Argonautica*, and Nonnos in his *Dionysiaca*, imitate Homer's literary dialect. Ionic was the dialect used to write elegiac poetry and poets used Doric for composing choral lyric poetry. For specifics on the Ionic-Attic dialect, see Appendix XII.

**Arkhilokhos of Paros, Ἀρχίλοχος Πάρου, c. 680–645 BCE.** The son of Telesikles, an aristocrat, and a slave woman, Arkhilokhos was a mercenary soldier and poet from Paros, a chief center for the worship of Demeter. In association with Demeter and Dionysos there was a tradition of iambic poetry, **ἴαμβοι**, a genre of poetry marked first by invective and scurrility, scatology, and sex, and second by its iambic meter. This iambic genre may have originated in the cult of Demeter, where insulting and abusive language, **αἰσχρολογία**, formed part of the ritual worship of the deity. In **iamboi** a first person narrator regales the audience with accounts of extravagant orgies or other escapades in which he claims to have taken part. Some of Arkhilokhos' **iamboi** were concerned with Lykambes and his two daughters, one of whom was named Neobule. In addition to iambics, he wrote about current events and military, personal, and political concerns. It is believed that his poetry was banned at Sparta because of its seditious qualities. In 708 B.C. his fellow islanders colonized Thasos, a northern Aegean island. The Parians who colonized it were often attacked by tribes from Thrakia. At some point Arkhilochos went to Thasos and fought against the Thrakians. The Saians, mentioned in the poem below, are a Thrakian tribe.

**Module 2 Practice Reading Aloud.** Practice reading this poem by Arkhilokhos. Read the poem a few times, trying to hear the rhythm of the words.

ἀσπίδι μὲν Σαΐων τις ἀγάλλεται, ἣν παρὰ θάμνῳ ἔντος ἀμώμητον κάλλιπον οὐκ ἐθέλων,

αὐτὸς δ᾽ ἐξέφυγον θανάτου τέλος. ἀσπὶς ἐκείνη ἐρρέτω· ἐξαῦτις κτήσομαι οὐ κακίω.

### **Verse Translation**

Dropped beside a bush, my shield no more some Saion With grasp and grin takes up. I blame myself.

Sadly leaving, fleeing gladly, I sidestepped Death. Without a shield I live to buy anew.

To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel's expert reading with a pitch accent, follow the link below:

Arkhilokhos' Ripsaspis Poem. 1

# **Etymology Corner II by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

Knowledge of etymology will give you control over Greek

. . . is probably a true statement. You are going to learn a lot of new, strange, precise terminology in your quest to accurately describe the syntax of a sentence. When you learn the origin of these terms, you will learn they are actually straightforward. Early grammarians were trying to convey information, not create a secret code that only experts can use. Unfortunately, these terms are usually in Latin or Greek, languages you don't speak (yet!). These Etymology Corners are designed to demystify the precise terminology of this textbook and thereby help you understand the concepts much faster.

<sup>1</sup> https://loom.com/share/02a004f496ca45a2904e772ce874af59.

**What to Study and Do 2.** Familiarize yourself with the additional sounds and punctuation conventions. You will encounter this information frequently. As you work through this text you will find yourself easily memorizing each sound and punctuation convention.

**Learning Tip 2: Memorize and Internalize the Sounds.** When memorizing the sounds of Greek, learn them well. The first time you learn the vowel sounds, you may feel as though you are learning a sequence of noises. Try associating each sound with a memorable image. Long alpha **ᾱ** may make you think of falling into grass on a warm summer's day. As you fall into the grass, say the sound **ah** and picture a long alpha **ᾱ** in your mind. Imagine this picture of you and the smell of the grass and the sound **ah** and the long alpha **ᾱ** as part of your lived experience. Link the next sound, eta, **ay** and **η**, to the **ah**, **ᾱ**, sound. Link the two by imagining the sun's r**ay**s (r **η** s) warming you as sink into the grass. Make sure that you connect the sound **ay** with an image of the letter eta, **η,** so that the two create a super-image in your mind. Link each image to the next and you will find that the time it takes you to remember brand-new information for the medium term is greatly reduced. By connecting new information, **ᾱ** and **η,**  which must begin as part of your short-term working memory, to old information that you already know, the English words **ah** and d**ay,** you create a link between your short-term memory and your long-term memory to create a medium-term memory. The formula **STM + LTM = MTM** is a memorization strategy that this textbook will recommend again and again. I have not invented this formula or these strategies. They have existed for a long time and the most powerful of them, presented soon, dates back to the ancient Greeks.

Next, think of a word in English that has the **ee** sound. M**ee**t, **ῑ**, works well. As you say **ah ᾱ** and sink into the grass warmed by the sun's r**η**s, your eyes m**ee**t (m **ῑ** t) with a cloud moving in the blue sky overhead. This cloud takes the form of a big b**oa**t (b **ω** t) filled with pirates. The pirates stand in the b**ω**t with black leather boots (b **ῡ** ts), as they stare back right at y**ῡ**. This linking strategy is powerful and can be used to place any number of items into your medium-term memory very quickly. You will still need to review this information in order to retain it and to place it, eventually, into your longterm memory. Just willing yourself to remember new information will not work. You need to use your imagination, if you wish to remember well and for the long term. Repetition also works but takes longer and often fails when you need to recall information. When creatively linking new information with old, remember to **SEE** it. **SEE**ing it means that you create an image that you can make come alive with your five **S**enses—hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, touching. You **E**xaggerate that image to make it memorable. Finally you **E**nergize the image by making it do something. This may seem like a lot of work. It will be, especially at the start. But with continued use the strategy will pay off and you will be able to use it for anything in life that you want to remember well.

# **Why Learn Accents?**

Accents tell you how to pronounce words correctly. They can also assist in identifying hard-to-decipher noun and verb forms. As you improve in reading Greek, you will begin to hear how the syllable sounds and accents work together to create meaning and beauty.

# **Accent**

Most Greek words have one syllable whose musical pitch varies slightly from that of the other syllables of the word. This difference of pitch is called the word's accent (**τόνος**). In English, we accent words by increasing stress on the accented syllable—**re**lative, re**li**gious—rather than by a difference in musical pitch.

In order to understand pitch better, say the following out loud:

The house is there.

and

The house is there?

Note that when you pronounce the word **house** in the statement the intonation of your voice is neutral but when you pronounce **house** in the question the pitch of your voice raises. When you raise the pitch of **house**, you indicate that you are asking a question.

Unlike English, all Greek words have their accents marked. Marking accents as part of spelling is a later convention, introduced possibly by the Alexandrian scholar Aristophanes of Byzantium in 200 BCE. Before this time the Greeks themselves did not mark their words with accentual notation, and, just like native English speakers, did not require them to know how to pronounce the words of their language. The accent of a Greek word is learned as a part of its spelling.

Accent is indicated in the following way:


Since English speakers accent words by stress not pitch, for the purpose of this course, simply stress the accented syllable like you would in English, ignoring the type of accent. If you wish to hear what a pitch accent in Greek may have sounded like, follow the links found at the end of this module.

### **Orthography**

Note carefully the following orthographical conventions:


As you read, translate, and write in ancient Greek you will readily internalize these conventions and so there is no need to commit them to memory.

# **Syllabification**

In order to accent a word correctly, you must know how to break it into syllables. A syllable occurs for every vowel or diphthong a Greek word has. To determine the number of syllables, count the vowels and diphthongs:

Ὅμηρος (3); Ἤτα (2); Αἵρεσις (3); Ἀχιλλεύς (3).

A syllable in Greek includes any initial consonants + the vowel or diphthong that directly follows + the first letter of a double consonant following the vowel or diphthong:

Ὅ-μη-ρος; Ἤ-τα; Αἵ-ρε-σις; Ἀ-χιλ-λεύς.

**Practice Counting Syllables.** Check your answers with those in the second column.


Consider the Greek word, Εἰλείθυια, the goddess of childbirth. We break this word into syllables like so: Εἰ-λεί-θυι-α. Each vowel and each diphthong is a syllable. The last three syllables are referred to by their sequence:


The initial syllable Εἰ- is not named because it is not one of the last three syllables.

### **Vowel Length**

In the paradigms and accenting practice of this text, macrons mark alpha, iota, and upsilon if long. Short vowels and diphthongs are not marked. In authentic texts and in the **Practice Translating** of this text, macrons do not occur. Diphthongs are by definition long with this exception: final **-αι** and **-οι** are short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series. **-αι** and **-οι** are final when they appear as the last two letters of a word, λῦσ**αι** but not λύσ**αις**.

# **Recessive and Persistent Accent**

In recessive accent, the accent occurs as far from the ultima as the possibilities of accent allow. Most verb forms have recessive accent. Nouns and other parts of speech have persistent accent, presented in detail in Module 11. In persistent accent, the accent stays on the same vowel or diphthong it is on in the nominative singular form, and does not change unless it has to in accordance with the possibilities of where accents can occur.

# **Possibilities of Accent**

Memorize these two possibilities. As the text progresses, you will learn how to accent adjectives, nouns, pronouns, and verbs. Appendix X offers a complete explanation of accent and contains additional practice exercises.


# **Accenting Verbs of Three Syllables or More**

**Long vowels are marked with a macron. Short vowels are not marked.** Read from top to bottom and apply the first line that meets the criteria:


### Accent **διδωμι**.

Check the ultima. If the ultima is short, place the accent on the antepenult. Stop! You are finished. If the ultima is long, place the accent on the penult. Stop! You are finished.

• The ultima, -**ι**, is short and so place the accent on the antepenult: **δίδωμι**.

### Accent **ποιεω**.

Check the ultima. If the ultima is short, place the accent on the antepenult. Stop! You are finished. If the ultima is long, place the accent on the penult. Stop! You are finished.

• The ultima, -**ω**, is long and so place the accent on the penult: **ποιέω**.

**Practice Accenting Verbs of Three Syllables or More.** Check your answers with those in the Answer Key. Remember that final -**αι** and -**οι** are short for purposes of accentuation, except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series. There are no optative forms in the below.


# **Ancient Greek Pitch Accent**

To hear what an ancient Greek pitch accent may have sounded like, follow the links below:

Stefan Hagel, Austrian Academy of Sciences1

Ἰωάννης Στρατάκης, Podium-Arts. 2

**Anakreon of Teos, Ἀνακρέων ὁ Τήϊος, c.582–c.485 BCE.** Alive during the tumultuous Archaic Age (700–480 BCE), Anakreon was born in Teos, a Greek

<sup>1</sup> https://www.oeaw.ac.at/kal/sh/demodokos.mp3.

<sup>2</sup> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MOvVWiDsPWQ.

city on the border of the Persian empire. In 545 the Persians attacked the Greek city-states lying on and off the coast of Asia Minor. Anakreon fought against the invaders, though, he says, he did nothing noteworthy in the battle. Anakreon eventually fled Persian rule and found refuge at the court of Polykrates, tyrant of Samos. After the assassination of Polykrates, Hipparkhos, tyrant of Athens, brought Anakreon to his court. When Hipparkhos was murdered in an uprising against him, Anakreon left Athens, returning to his native Teos, where he spent the rest of his days. Considered one of the best of the lyric poets, in his poetry Anakreon employs a deceptively simple style with subtle wit, humor, nuance, irony, and complexity.

**Module 3 Practice Reading Aloud.** Practice reading aloud this poem by Anakreon; pay attention to the sound each syllable makes and the rhythm of the words.

πῶλε Θρῃκίη, τί δή με λοξὸν ὄμμασι βλέπουσα νηλέως φεύγεις, δοκεῖς δέ μ' οὐδὲν εἰδέναι σοφόν; ἴσθι τοι, καλῶς μὲν ἄν τοι τὸν χαλινὸν ἐμβάλοιμι, ἡνίας δ' ἔχων στρέφοιμί σ' ἀμφὶ τέρματα δρόμου· νῦν δὲ λειμῶνάς τε βόσκεαι κοῦφά τε σκιρτῶσα παίζεις, δεξιὸν γὰρ ἱπποπείρην οὐκ ἔχεις ἐπεμβάτην.

#### **Verse Translation**

Thracian filly, why eye me sidewise? With heartless Glance you flee and see no skill in me. Yet look how Deft I am, I can insert the bit, around the Racecourse post with reins in hand I can ride astride You. For now in meadows you graze, playing, lightly Leaping, lacking any expert guide to ride you.

To listen to Anakreon's poem read by me and performed by Stefan Hagel, follow this link:

Anakreon's Thrakian Filly. 3

To listen to the translation set to an original music score by Roshan Samtani, follow this link:

Roshan Samtani's Musical Translation of Thrakian Filly, 4

Guitarist, composer, and educator Dr. Roshan Samtani graduated with degrees in jazz studies (William Paterson), music history (BGSU), and ethnomusicology (PhD. Brown Univ). He resides in Madrid, Spain, and occasionally takes on dedicated students of the guitar.

<sup>3</sup> https://loom.com/share/175738b3a7fb48cbbdd3fee97b96bee0.

<sup>4</sup> https://loom.com/share/46f05df53e694896b7dade62e9b8d99a

# **Etymology Corner III by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Etymology to the Rescue

By now you've probably realized the reason why the alphabet is called **the alphabet** it's named after the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, **alpha** and **beta**. But are you having trouble remembering whether an **omicron** or an **omega** is the long one? **O-micron** is the **O** that is **micro** *short*, like in **microscope**. **O-mega** is the **O** that is **mega** *big*, like in **megaphone** or **megabyte**. An **epsilon** is a **psilon** *bare, short* **E**, whereas an **eta** is just a plain long **E** sound. Etymology to the rescue

**What to Study and Do 3.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure you know how to accent verbs of three syllables or more.

**Learning Tip 3: Take Note of Two Goals for this Course.** This course requires analysis, logic, and memorization. These processes, though difficult to learn, are teachable. This course also attempts to initiate in you a process of deep learning and thinking. Deep learning and thinking involve discontinuity and creativity. They form an approach to learning that goes beyond analysis, logic, and rote memory into the realm of the unknown, which requires a transformation from old ways of thinking to new forms of learning. We humans are naturally creative. Our ability to sing and to communicate brought us out of the trees and on to the plains. We create many things, including words. Throughout the world it is estimated that 5,400 new words are created every year and 1,000 of them are used enough to make it into print (Global Language Monitor).1 Note that it is easy to connect many English words with their Greek ancestors. In the case of anthropology, biology, and chronology, we created the loan word directly from two Greek words,

**ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου** *human being* **βίος, βίου** *life* **χρόνος, χρόνου** *time*

and

**λόγος, λόγου** *word, reason, study.*

As you memorize sounds and learn new vocabulary, consider coining your own words: **etymophilia**, perhaps? Think about memorizing the facts of this course and about using your creativity to make them live with special meaning inside you.

<sup>1</sup> https://languagemonitor.com/number-of-words-in-english/no-of-words/.

# Module 4 **Adverbs**

# **Adverbs**

In English, adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Many English adverbs end in the suffix **-ly**. In Greek, adverbs are defined as they are in English. A Greek adverb (**ἐπίρρημα**) typically ends in the suffix **-ως**, although the majority of the high-frequency ones found below do not. When reading Greek you often encounter adverbs right before or right after the word they modify.

Memorize the definition of an adverb as given above and the three examples found below. The adverb is in bold and what it modifies is underlined.


The suffix **ly** does not always function as a morpheme1 indicating that an English word is an adverb. Consider these two sentences,


Though the forms are the same, in the first **daily** functions as an adjective and in the second it functions as an adverb. Since the adverb in Greek functions just like the adverb in English, use your understanding of English adverbs to understand the definition and the function of the Greek adverb.

**Practice Identifying Adverbs.** From this excerpt of Joseph Heller's *Catch-22*, practice picking out the adverbs and what they modify. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

<sup>1</sup> A minimal and indivisible morphological unit that cannot be analysed into smaller units: e.g. in (prefix), come (stem), -ing (suffix), forming the word incoming (*Oxford English Dictionary*).

"Open your eyes, Clevinger. It doesn't make a damned bit of difference who wins the war to someone who's dead."

Clevinger sat for a moment as though he'd been slapped. "Congratulations!" he exclaimed bitterly, the thinnest milk-white line enclosing his lips tightly in a bloodless, squeezing grind. "I can't think of another attitude that could be depended upon to give greater comfort to the enemy."

"The enemy," retorted Yossarian with weighted precision, "is anybody who's going to get you killed, no matter which side he's on, and that includes Colonel Cathcart. And don't you forget that, because the longer you remember it, the longer you might live."

In doing the above exercise, aim for a complete understanding of what an adverb is and how it functions. Since the Greek adverb is nearly identical to the English in definition and function, you can transfer your understanding of the English adverb to your understanding of the Greek adverb.

### **Greek Adverbs**

The below has a list of the most frequently occurring adverbs. Memorize them. You will encounter them frequently in the rest of this book and they are not glossed. This book glosses (**γλῶσσα** *tongue, language*) all words except the frequently occurring adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions by giving each word's English equivalent and the information you need to be able to identify the word's form.




**Practice Translating Adverbs.** Translate the paragraph below from *Catch-22*, paying attention to how the adverbs function. Often there is not an authentic connection between how ancient Greek expresses the meaning of a sentence and how English does. The main takeaway from exercises like these is a greater understanding of how each part of speech functions, not a greater understanding of ancient Greek idiom. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

'Every time another White Halfoat was born,' he continued, 'the stock market turned bullish. **Νῦν** whole drilling crews were following us around with all their equipment **γε** to get the jump on each other. Companies began to merge **γε** so they could cut down on the number of people they had to assign to us. But the crowd in back of us kept growing. We never got a good night's sleep. When we stopped, they stopped. When we moved, they moved, chuckwagons, bulldozers, derricks, generators. We were a walking business boom, and we began to receive invitations from some of the best hotels **γε** for the amount of business we would drag into town with us. Some of those invitations were **μάλιστα** generous, but we could **οὐ** accept any because we were Indians and all the best hotels that were inviting us would **οὐ** accept Indians **ὡς** guests. Racial prejudice is a terrible thing, Yossarian. It **μὴν** is.

'**τοίνυν**, Yossarian, it **δὴ** happened—the beginning of the end. They began to follow us around from in front. They would try to guess where we were going to stop next and would begin drilling before we even got there, so we could **οὐ** stop. As soon as we'd begin to unroll our blankets, they would kick us off. They had confidence in us. They wouldn't **καὶ** wait to strike oil before they kicked us off. We were **οὕτως** tired we almost did **οὐ** care the day our time ran out. One morning we found ourselves **μὴν** surrounded by oilmen waiting for us to come their way so they could kick us off. Everywhere you looked there was an oilman on a ridge, waiting there **ὡς** Indians getting ready to attack. It was the end. We could **οὐ** stay where we were because we had **νῦν** been kicked off. And there was no place left for us to go. Only the Army saved me. Luckily, the war broke out just in the nick of time, and a draft board picked me right up out of the middle and put me down safely in Lowery Field, Colorado. I was the only survivor.'

### **Why Study the Greeks?**

The answers to this question are many and vary as much as beauty does to the beholder's eyes. One answer is this. Given our rapidly changing digital world, today more than ever we need to learn how to learn. Ancient Greek is a great vehicle for doing so. It offers us information which must be memorized, understood, and analyzed. And it offers us different conceptual systems for thinking about culture and language. A second answer is that the ancient Greeks offer us compelling content. Ancient Greek culture is the starting point for many subjects that continue to enthrall and influence us today. Anthropology, architecture, art, history, literature, mathematics, medicine, music, philosophy, political science, rhetoric, science, and theology are some fields of study to which the Greeks applied their curiosity and intellects. Studying their achievements in these fields assists us by offering models and perspectives for thinking about these subjects and for living our own lives. By studying a culture different from our own, we can see more clearly how life is filled with complexity and nuance, where there are few absolute saints and sinners. Like the rest of humanity, the Greeks achieved great things, some good, some bad, and much that was mixed. The Greeks in all their complexity are there for us to study with a critical eye that sees the bad and the good and realizes that most people have a mixture of both within them. A third possible answer is that the Greeks were creative and independent, willing to challenge the status quo and to invent new ways of doing and of thinking. Cultivating the creative spirit was integral to Greek life and we can learn from them how to do so ourselves. And so this textbook offers its answers to this question by assisting you in learning how to learn; by offering you rich content; and by attempting to awaken the creative spirit that lives within you.

**Mimnermos of Kolophon or Smyrna, Μίμνερμος ἐκ Κολοφῶνος ἢ Σμύρνας, c. 630–600 BCE.** A Greek elegiac poet, Mimnermos wrote short polished poetry on a variety of themes including age, death, and love. He influenced Kallimakhos and the Alexandrian poets and Properitus and the later Roman poets. Alexandrian scholars collected his poems into two books. Today only paltry scraps remain. As is the case with most of the ancients, what little we know of Mimnermos comes from what we glean from the small bits of his writings that have survived.

**Module 4 Practice Reading Aloud.** Practice reading this poem by Mimnermos. Read the poem a few times, paying attention to the sound each syllable makes and trying to hear the rhythm of the words.

#### **Mimnermos, Fragment 1**

τίς δὲ βίος, τί δὲ τερπνὸν ἄτερ χρυσῆς Ἀφροδίτης; τεθναίην, ὅτε μοι μηκέτι ταῦτα μέλοι: κρυπταδίη φιλότης καὶ μείλιχα δῶρα καὶ εὐνή, οἷ' ἥβης ἄνθεα γίνεται ἁρπαλέα

#### 1.5

ἀνδράσιν ἠδὲ γυναιξίν· ἐπεὶ δ' ὀδυνηρὸν ἐπέλθῃ γῆρας, ὅ τ' αἰσχρὸν ὁμῶς καὶ κακὸν ἄνδρα τιθεῖ, αἰεί μιν φρένας ἀμφὶ κακαὶ τείρουσι μέριμναι, οὐδ' αὐγὰς προσορῶν τέρπεται ἠελίου, ἀλλ' ἐχθρὸς μὲν παισίν, ἀτίμαστος δὲ γυναιξίν·

#### 1.10

οὕτως ἀργαλέον γῆρας ἔθηκε θεός.

#### **Verse Translation**

What's life? Where's joy without golden Love? I welcome death when these delights depart: Secret love and pleasing gifts and tangled beds, The blossoms youth provides to grasping men and Women. Aged pain then creaks its self in And brings an ugly face and evil grin, Rubbing sharpened cares upon our dulling minds. No more do we enjoy the rays of day Rather hostile lives we live despised by Young loves. So god decreed pained age to be.

To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel's expert reading with a pitch accent, follow the link below:

Mimnermos' What is Life**.** 2

<sup>2</sup> https://loom.com/share/6afdebc56f4542e7bfaf3ae35ccffe96.

# **Etymology Corner IV by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Why Bother?

Most of us these days don't get a solid grammatical grounding in the language we learn at home—if you can express yourself in English, why do you need to know how it fits together? It's like how most of us drive cars—if you can obey the rules of the road and get from A to B, why do you need to know how to change a tire or a sparkplug? If something goes wrong, can't you just call an expert? The great thing about studying Greek is YOU will become that expert. When you start to understand how the mechanics of Greek work, you'll in turn start to understand some of those things that are weird about English. Greek and English aren't identical under the hood, but you will gain the tools to understand both of them.

Or to think of it a different way, to understand Greek you'll need to learn some of these technical terms that you probably haven't heard anyone talk about since 3rd grade (if ever). It's not your fault, but it's now your problem!

**What to Study and Do 4.** Before moving on to the next module make sure that you have learned the definition and the function of the adverb as found in the wilds of the English and Greek languages, keeping in mind that if you understand the English adverb you also understand the Greek. As you work through this text, if you find yourself uncertain about the definition and function of the adverb, redo the exercises in this module and check your answers with the Answer Key.

**Learning Tip 4: Internalize and Apply.** As you process and come to understand new information, you make it part of your working knowledge. Going through a process of memorization, association, and review enables you to internalize the new information. Active application of what you have memorized assists your learning of the new material. The practice exercises on adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions seek to assist you in making your understanding of the definitions of these parts of speech part of your internalized working knowledge by having you apply what you have memorized, the definitions, to identifying the parts of speech in the wild. Memory combined with application result in your mastering this analytical part of the course.

# Module 5 **Conjunctions and Accenting Verbs II**

# **Conjunctions**

Like adverbs, the Greek conjunction (**σύνδεσμος**) is the same as the English conjunction in definition and function. Conjunctions are of two kinds, **coordinating** and **subordinating**.

**Coordinating conjunctions** connect two words: our doubts **and** fears; crying **and** laughing. They connect two phrases: by ship **and** on foot. They connect clauses (words containing a subject and verb): a nation that was conceived in liberty **and** dedicated to the proposition that all are created equal.

**Subordinating conjunctions** connect a **dependent clause** to an **independent clause**. **Clauses**, both dependent and independent, contain a subject and a verb. Consider these two sentences,

be mindful **if** you're speaking,

and

be careful **when** you go along.

**If you're speaking** and **when you go along** are the dependent clauses. **Be mindful** and **be careful** are the independent clauses. The subordinating conjunctions **if** and **when** connect the two clauses.

**Practice Identifying Conjunctions.** From this excerpt from *Catch-22*, practice picking out the coordinating and subordinating conjunctions in the passage below. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Each morning when they came around, three brisk and serious men with efficient mouths and inefficient eyes, they were accompanied by brisk and serious Nurse Duckett, one of the ward nurses who didn't like Yossarian. They read the chart at the foot of the bed and asked impatiently about the pain. They seemed irritated when he told them it was exactly the same. Nurse Duckett made a note to give Yossarian another pill, and the four of them moved along to the next bed. None of the nurses liked Yossarian. Actually, although the pain in his liver had gone away, Yossarian didn't say anything and the doctors never suspected.

With this exercise your aim is a full understanding of what a conjunction is (its definition) and how it is used in a sentence (its function).

### **Greek Conjunctions**

The below has a list of the most frequently occurring conjunctions. Memorize them. You will encounter them frequently in the rest of this book and they are not glossed.


**εἰ** (proclitic) *if* **ἐπεί** *after, when, since*



**Practice Translating Conjunctions and Adverbs.** Translate the paragraph below, a translation of the beginning of Lucian's *The Ass*, **ὁ Ὄνος**, paying attention to how the conjunctions and adverbs function. Often there is not an authentic connection between how ancient Greek expresses the meaning of a sentence and how English does. The main takeaway from exercises like these is a greater understanding of how each part of speech functions, not a greater understanding of ancient Greek idiom. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

I **ποτε** went to Thessaly. I had some family business there with a man from that region. My horse carried me **καὶ** my possessions **καὶ** one slave attended me. I was travelling the dirt road **ἐπεὶ** along came some travellers headed for Hypata, a city of Thessaly **καὶ** their hometown. We shared bread **ὡς** we approached the end of our journey **καὶ** the city. I asked them **εἰ** they knew about a man living in Hypata. His name was Hipparkhos **καὶ** I carried for him a letter from home, requesting a stay at his house. They replied **ὅτι** they knew Hipparkhos, **ἵνα** in the city he lived, **ὅτι** he had sufficient silver, and **ὅτι** he kept only one slave and a wife, **ἐπεὶ** money was his true love.

**ὡς** we neared the city, we saw an orchard **καὶ** on the grounds a small but tolerable cottage **ἵνα** Hipparkhos lived. Bidding me farewell my companions left. I approached the door and knocked. After a long wait a woman answered, stepping outside.

### **Accenting Verbs II**

Remember that there are three accent marks:


Since English speakers accent words by stress not pitch, for the purpose of this course, simply stress the accented syllable as you would in English, ignoring the type of accent. If you wish to hear what a pitch accent in Greek may have sounded like, follow the Stefan Hagel links throughout this text.

### **Vowel Length**

In the paradigms and accenting practice of this text, macrons mark alpha, iota, and upsilon if long. Short vowels and diphthongs are not marked. In authentic texts and in the Practice Translating sections of this text, macrons do not occur. Diphthongs are by definition long with this exception: final **-αι** and **-οι** are short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series. **-αι** and **-οι** are final when they appear as the last two letters of a word, λῦσ**αι** but not λύσ**αις**.

### **Recessive and Persistent Accent**

In recessive accent, the accent occurs as far from the ultima as the possibilities of accent allow. Most verb forms have recessive accent. Nouns and other parts of speech have persistent accent. In persistent accent, the accent stays on the same vowel or diphthong it is on in the nominative singular form and does not change unless it has to in accordance with the possibilities of where accents can occur.

### **Review Possibilities of Accent I**

Review these two possibilities, rememorizing them if you need to.


# **Additional Possibilities of Accent**

Memorize these four possibilities.


## **Review Accenting Verbs of Three Syllables or More**

Remember that long vowels are marked with a macron and that short vowels are not marked. Read from top to bottom and apply the first line that meets the criteria:


## **Accenting Verbs of Two Syllables**

Νote that there are no verbs of only one syllable unless contraction, like **cannot** to **can't**, has occurred. Contract verbs are introduced in Modules 10, 17, 19, and 24.

1. If the penult is long AND the ultima is short, put a circumflex on the penult. Stop! παῦε

A helpful acronym is **PLUS**: Penult Long; Ultima Short.

2. In all other cases (there are three), put an acute on the penult. **Stop!**


**Practice Accenting Verbs of Two Syllables or More.** Check your answers with those in the Answer Key. Remember that final -**αι** and -**οι** are short for purposes of accentuation, except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series. There are no optative forms in the below.


There is additional accent practice in Appendix X.

### **Greek Lyric Poetry**

Greek lyric poetry refers to poetry composed between the 600s to about 350 BCE, which is not epic, didactic, verse in hexameters, or dramatic (comedy, satyr, and tragedy). Lyric poetry has its roots in folk songs and its subject matter is as varied as the subject matter of song is today. Poets sung about friendships, funerals, harvests, hatreds, love, philosophy, war, and weddings, to name a few topics. Lyric poems ranged in length from a few lines to several hundred. Most of this poetry was sung to the accompaniment of a lyre or an *aulos*, a double-reed wind instrument, commonly but mistakenly referred to as a flute. Sometimes a harp was used instead of a lyre. Some lyric poets are Arkhilokhos, Kallinos, Mimnermos, Semonides, and Tyrtaios, who lived in the 600s BCE; Alkaios, Sappho, Solon, and Theognis, alive in the 600s and 500s BCE; Anakreon in the 500s; and Bakkhylides, Pindar, Praxilla, and Simonides in the 400s. In this text you have already read poems by Anakreon, Arkhilokhos, and Mimnermos. You will also read poems by Sappho, hailed by her contemporaries as the tenth muse, and by Praxilla, a poetess also of high repute.

**Module 5 Practice Reading Aloud.** Practice reading this poem by Anakreon. Read the poem out loud a few times, paying attention to the sound each syllable makes and trying to hear the rhythm of the words.

#### **Anakreon 395**

πολιοὶ μὲν ἡμὶν ἤδη

κρόταφοι κάρη τε λευκόν, χαρίεσσα δ' οὐκέτ' ἥβη πάρα, γηραλέοι δ' ὀδόντες,


#### **Verse Translation**

Mine temples are gray My pate gleams bright Gone's youth's delight.

My teeth rot away Not much remains Of my cherished life.

And so I wail, In dread of Hell, And Hades' fright-

Ful gloom. A steep Step down, a grim Descent, from which

We won't return.

To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel's expert reading with a pitch accent, follow the link below:

Anakreon 395**.** 1

### **Etymology Corner V by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

Technical Terms 1

**Diphthongs, Module 1.** You'll remember that a diphthong is defined as *some pairs of vowels pronounced together, producing one sound that starts as one vowel and finishes as another*. This makes sense because they are two (**di**) sounds (**phthong**) coming together. Think of two strings on a guitar being struck and making a simple chord—**phthong**!

**What to Study and Do 5.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have learned the definition and the function of coordinating and subordinating conjunctions and that you can identify them in the wild. Remember that if you understand the definition and function of

<sup>1</sup> https://loom.com/share/94d49965d2174398aca850e5d0800897.

the English conjunction, you also understand the Greek conjunction. As you work through this text, if you find yourself uncertain about the definition and function of the coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, redo the exercises in this module and check your answers with the Answer Key. Also make sure that you have memorized the possibilities of accent and that you can accent verbs of any number of syllables.

**Learning Tip 5: Learn So As To Be Able To Teach.** Learning anything new takes time. As you progress through this course, learn the new information so as to be able to teach it to a friend, enemy, pet, relative, or roommate. As you progress, review regularly and often. What seems at first read a barbaric murmur of incoherence will become an articulate and beautiful friend as you revisit it time and again.

# Module 6 **Endings Create Meaning**

# **Greek Cases**

In the next module the noun and pronoun case system is presented in detail. For now, know that there are five cases in Greek: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and vocative or, ordered differently, nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and vocative. Americans teaching ancient Greek use the latter order. Those teaching in other parts of the world tend to use the former. So as to reach both audiences, this text adopts both conventions, presenting NAGDV first, and NGDAV second. Each case has specific functions associated with it. In this module, three cases (nominative, accusative, dative) and their functions (subject, object, indirect object) are introduced.

# **In English, Word Order Creates Meaning**

In English, meaning is created by two main things: word order and prepositional phrases. Word order enables us to understand who acts and whom or what receives the action.

> **Key:** bold = **subject** of the verb underlined = object of the verb italics = *verb*  ( ) = indirect object

Consider this sentence:

**The woman** *sees* the man.

The **woman**, the sentence's subject, performs the action of the verb, **sees**. **The man**, the sentence's object, receives the action of the verb, **sees**.

If we change the order of the words,

**The man** *sees* the woman.

we change the meaning of the sentence.

In the above, three items of complexity are present: subject, verb, object. In the below a fourth item is added, an indirect object.

In the sentence,

**I** *give* (her) money

**I**, the sentence's subject, performs the action of the verb, **give**. **Money**, the sentence's object, receives the action of the verb, **give**. **Her**, the sentence's indirect object, indirectly receives the action of the verb **give**. Word order determines who gives what to whom. If we change the order of the words,

Give money I her

we no longer have a meaningful sentence.

### **In Greek, Endings Create Meaning**

In Greek, meaning is created by two main things: word endings and prepositional phrases. Word order still has a role to play in creating meaning but, again, word endings, much more than word order, determine meaning. Endings tell us who acts and who or what receives the action.

In this sentence,

**ἡ γυνὴ** τὸν ἄνδρα *ὁράει*, *The woman sees the man*,

**ἡ γυνή** is the subject. Greek indicates the subject by the nominative case ending **-η**. The nominative case is the case that Greeks used in order to tell who or what performs the action of a verb or has the action of the verb performed upon it. **τὸν ἄνδρα** is the object of the verb—it directly receives the action of the verb. Greek indicates object by the accusative case ending **-α**. The accusative case is the case that Greek uses to tell who or what receives the action of a verb.

If we change the order of the words,


the meaning remains the same because **case ending**, not word order, determines meaning.

As already noted, the above sentence has three pieces of grammatical complexity: subject, verb, direct object. In what follows we add a fourth, the indirect object.

In the sentences,

**ἡ γυνὴ** χρήματα (αὐτῷ) *δίδωσι, The woman gives him money*,

and

**ἡ γυνὴ** χρήματα (αὐτῇ) *δίδωσι, The woman gives her money,*

**ἡ γυνή** is the subject. Greek indicates subject by the nominative case ending **-η**. **χρήματα** is the object of the verb—it directly receives the verb's action. Greek indicates object by the accusative case ending **-α**. In the first sentence **αὐτῷ** is the indirect object and in the second **αὐτῇ** is the indirect object. Greek indicates indirect object by using the dative case endings **-ῳ** and **-ῃ**. Again if we change the order of the words,

χρήματα **ἡ γυνὴ** *δίδωσι* (αὐτῷ), *the woman gives him money,*

and

(αὐτῇ) *δίδωσι* **ἡ γυνὴ** χρήματα, *the woman gives her money,*

the meaning remains the same because case ending, not word order, determines meaning.

**Practice Writing in Greek.** Using the vocabulary from the nouns and verbs, compose the below sentences in ancient Greek. For nouns and pronouns be sure to use the correct case. Nominative case endings are bolded; accusative endings are underlined and dative endings are highlighted. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.


#### **Verbs**


#### **Nouns and Pronouns**



Using the vocabulary found above, translate the sentences into ancient Greek. There is no Greek equivalent for the English **a** and so leave **a** untranslated in the below. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.


### **Practice Making Up Your Own Sentences**

Using the above words, try writing sentences in Greek. Be creative and don't worry about making a mistake.

### **Epic Poetry**

The Sumerian epic *Gilgamesh*, dated to c. 2000 BCE, tells the story in Akkhadian of the historical king of Uruk, Gilgamesh, and his companion, Enkidu. It is the first recorded literature that exists and concerns Gilgamesh's unsuccessful quest to obtain immortality. Epic poetry also flourished in Greece. The *Iliad* and the *Odyssey*, believed to have been composed by Homer, record historical and fictional events that date to 3100 years ago, c. 1100 BCE. The epics were originally transmitted orally and first written down around 750 BCE, the same time that their possible author, Homer, lived. The ancient Greek epics tell the tale of two heroes, Akhilleus and Odysseus, and are organized around a central thesis. The *Iliad* concerns Akhilleus' wrath and the destruction it caused when the Greeks fought at Troy so as to take back for Menelaos his wife Helen. The *Odyssey* explores Odysseus' quest to return home after the fall of Troy and to reassert himself as king of Ithaka. The Greeks believed that both epics were largely true accounts of what they viewed as the ancient past. Today we believe that the epics are mostly fiction, though they include many non-fictional places, people, and events. The epics (and other poetry) were sung by bards and accompanied by a musical instrument, such as the phorminx or lyre. For more information and to hear what the words and music may have sounded like, visit this site:

#### **Georg Danek and Stefan Hagel**

"In the course of the last years, we have developed a technique of singing the Homeric epics, which is appropriate for the primarily oral tradition from which these poems emerge. The Homeric bard sang his songs to the four-stringed phorminx, improvising his fournote melody at the same time as he improvised his text, which was unique in every performance. His monotonous melody, far from interpreting the text, served only as a medium to transport the words and to catch the listeners' attention by their intrinsic rhythm.

Our theory is not to be understood as the exact reconstruction of a given melody, but as an approach to the technique the Homeric singers used to accommodate melodic principles to the demands of the individual verse, guided by the accentual structure and sentence-intonation of the Ancient Greek language as well as by metrical structures."

To listen to Stefan Hagel singing the *Iliad*, follow this link:

Stefan Hagel Singing the Iliad. 1

**Homer, Ὅμηρος, c. 750 BCE** Homer is conventionally credited with the composition of the epic poems, the *Iliad* and the *Odyssey*, although today many scholars believe that the poems were composed by the different people. Homer sung his poems to the accompaniment of a musical instrument, the fourstringed phorminx (**φόρμιγξ**). In the poems Homer speaks of the past and of his own modern day, referring to it regularly. When telling the story of the heroes Akhilleus and Odysseus, he refers to the events of their lives as having taken place in ancient times. Like many things, time—and our conception of it—is relative. Of the many accounts of Homer's life the most common is that he was a blind bard from Ionia—blindness being associated with excellence in the poetic craft. Of him not much else is known and less is certain. Time veils what we know of Homer.

**Module 6 Practice Reading Aloud.** Practice reading this excerpt of the *Odyssey*, Book 19. 535–550. Read the excerpt a few times, paying attention to the sound each syllable makes and trying to hear the rhythm of the words.

ἀλλ' ἄγε μοι τὸν ὄνειρον ὑπόκριναι καὶ ἄκουσον. χῆνές μοι κατὰ οἶκον ἐείκοσι πυρὸν ἔδουσιν ἐξ ὕδατος, καί τέ σφιν ἰαίνομαι εἰσορόωσα· ἐλθὼν δ' ἐξ ὄρεος μέγας αἰετὸς ἀγκυλοχείλης πᾶσι κατ' αὐχένας ἦξε καὶ ἔκτανεν· οἱ δ' ἐκέχυντο ἀθρόοι ἐν μεγάροις, ὁ δ' ἐς αἰθέρα δῖαν ἀέρθη. αὐτὰρ ἐγὼ κλαῖον καὶ ἐκώκυον ἔν περ ὀνείρῳ, ἀμφὶ δ' ἔμ' ἠγερέθοντο ἐϋπλοκαμῖδες Ἀχαιαί, οἴκτρ' ὀλοφυρομένην ὅ μοι αἰετὸς ἔκτανε χῆνας. ἂψ δ' ἐλθὼν κατ' ἄρ' ἕζετ' ἐπὶ προὔχοντι μελάθρῳ, φωνῇ δὲ βροτέῃ κατερήτυε φώνησέν τε·

«θάρσει, Ἰκαρίου κούρη τηλεκλειτοῖο· οὐκ ὄναρ, ἀλλ' ὕπαρ ἐσθλόν, ὅ τοι τετελεσμένον ἔσται. χῆνες μὲν μνηστῆρες, ἐγὼ δέ τοι αἰετὸς ὄρνις

<sup>1</sup> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qAZg9aGbEU8&t=88s.

ἦα πάρος, νῦν αὖτε τεὸς πόσις εἰλήλουθα, ὃς πᾶσι μνηστῆρσιν ἀεικέα πότμον ἐφήσω.»

### **Verse Translation**

Guest, interpret my dream, listen closely, please. Twenty house-fed geese of mine are eating grain inside. Fresh from swimming they came, bringing joy, and I admire them. From afar a large beaked mountain eagle enters, breaks their necks, and kills them all, a heap of bodies, Piled in our hall. He then flies into the bright sky. Still asleep I weep and caterwaul in dreams alive, and Altogether 'round me stand long-haired Akhaians. And I Sob—alas for me—my dead geese killed by eagle's might. Turning back he perches massive in our hall and Ends my tears, his human voice proclaiming clearly,

"Courage, daughter, born of famed Ikarios. No Dream was this but real, an act that shall occur. These Geese are suitors; I, no more an eagle, bird of Prey, am come, your husband once again returned. A Dreadful foul and fateful death I throw upon them all."

To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel's expert reading with a pitch accent, follow the link below:

Odyssey Book 19. 535–550.2

# **Etymology Corner VI by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 2

**Orthography, Module 1.** Orthography refers to the correct way of writing a word, and in Greek it's not just a matter of getting the letters in the right order but we need to include accents and breathing for some vowels. Orthography comes from the Greek **ὀρθός** *straight, correct, right* (did you get braces from the **orthodontist**, *correct tooth doctor*?) and **γραφία** *drawing, writing* (like **calligraphy** is *beautiful writing*, **oceanography** is *writing about the ocean*, and **graffiti** is *writing* on a wall or surface in a public place).

**What to Study and Do 6.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have learned that Greek indicates the subject, the person or thing that performs the

<sup>2</sup> https://loom.com/share/d2ab14e469a34546929bf3ce02d5cfad.

action of a verb or has the action performed upon her, by using a nominative case ending; that Greek indicates the object, the person or thing that receives the action of the verb, by using an accusative case ending; and that Greek indicates the indirect object, the person or thing indirectly involved in the action of the verb, by using the dative case ending. You should now have a good understanding of the two ways that English creates meaning (word order and prepositional phrases) and the two ways that Greek creates meaning (endings and prepositional phrases).

**Learning Tip 6: Let What You Know Help with What You Do Not Know.** You are acquiring an understanding of how English and Greek create meaning in similar and different ways. Use your knowledge of English to assist you in acquiring your knowledge of Greek. As you identify parts of speech and determine their function, your understanding of this book's content (definitions, endings, and vocabulary) and its concepts (how Greek creates meaning) increases. Learning the content and concepts of this course requires focused effort on your part. Apply this strategy to other aspects of life, building from what you know to what you do not.

# Guest Feature 1 **Stefan Hagel Teaches Us How to Sing**

# **Singing Ancient Greek by Stefan Hagel**

Why would you want to do such a weird thing? Perhaps because you realise most of ancient poetry was meant to be sung, and you would like to experience it as properly as possible. Or because it is a nice way of getting acquainted with the interplay between rhythm and melodic accent that is at the core of ancient Greek pronunciation. Or because, in the form of song, it is much easier to remember poetry. Or to impress your friends (only recommended with a very special type of friend).

If you do not like singing and are nevertheless fascinated with poetry, there is still much to gain—epic poetry was generally recited at least from the Classical period on, and so were all the ordinary dialogues in drama. Here the rhythm alone, if executed in the ancient way in the form of long and short syllables, will grant a genuinely musical experience even without a melody, and all the more so if the gliding pitch contours of the language are respected as well. For those, however, who take the easier route of singing, here are some ideas.

Regarding the music of ancient poetry, we are trapped between the excitingly ancient and the reassuringly genuine. We do have some ancient tunes, some of them virtually complete, but most of these are from the Roman period, half a millennium after Classical Athens and even further removed from the music of Sappho and Homer. Most famous among these melodies is the so-called Seikilos song, inscribed on a small funeral monument. Then there is a number of pieces by a certain Mesomedes, a highly valued musician at the Imperial court in Rome. Apparently composed for elementary music schooling, they are still perfect introductory material, having been preserved in medieval copies. The oldest performable melody, in contrast, comes from the end of the second century BCE, when a hymn staged at Delphi by the Athenian state orchestra was publicly displayed on stone. Naturally, this is much more complex music, which will sound quite strange to ears not trained in the subtlety of ancient chromaticism.

The aforementioned melodies are readily accessible in modern transcriptions. There is only a small problem: most of these do not reflect the original pitch. When the difference is in the range of only a semitone or tone, that may be negligible for many purposes, but often—which unfortunately includes the best editions the melodies appear much too high. This has complex historical reasons that need not concern us, but it is important to bear in mind. For the simpler pieces mentioned above there is a simple guide: the Seikilos song, Mesomedes' Hymn to the Sun, and the two short Invocations in the same collection all start with the same note. However we find it transcribed (most often as *a* or *e*), its original pitch was very close to modern *F*#. Remember this note, in case you should ever want to play one of the chief ancient instruments, where it is a traditional bass note (in ancient musical notation, it is written as C).

Even though the Greeks developed the idea of an octave being divided into twelve equal semitone steps, they did not normally tune their instruments in this way. Therefore, an original performance would often surprise modern Western ears with some notes slightly 'out of tune'. If you are interested in such details, I have developed tools for bringing transmitted tunings to life on the computer and experimenting with them. You may download them here,

#### https://homepage.univie.ac.at/stefan.hagel/software/Harmogai\_inst.exe

Finally, you may want to set your favourite lyric to melodies of your own. The good news is that here we cannot do anything wrong, except a single thing: to claim that what we are doing would amount to 'reconstructing ancient music'. Otherwise we enjoy complete freedom, though it is always helpful to remain aware of what exactly we are aiming at. In an approach towards the unapproachable goal of 'authenticity', there are various possible steps challenges best faced one at a time: trying to understand the underlying rhythm, rationally and as a bodily experience; roughly using ancient-style scales; perhaps using real ancient tuning; using reconstructed instruments (in recent years, good replicas of auloi and lyras have become available, though the best-advertised are not necessarily the most authentic); and of course designing the melody in an ancient way.

Unfortunately, our understanding of what the last may mean rests on the few surviving music fragments plus some scattered remarks in ancient texts. Above, we have already made the acquaintance of a typical starting note, which also serves as a convenient final; we also learn that the note a fourth above it played a highly important role in pre-Roman music, and the notes a tone below these two respectively may conveniently serve as a harmonic contrast. An instrumental accompaniment would underline such harmonic domains, while abstaining from modern chordal harmony: instead of our cherished chords involving three or more different notes in the octave, the ancient sources only ever talk about a combination of two, creating intervallic concords but also discords, as well as resolving the tensions created in this way into unison.

But how to develop the contours of a melody? In many of the extant ancient pieces, there is a tendency to follow the rise and fall of speech melody, sometimes roughly, sometimes so faithfully that scholars were able to derive crucial parameters of ancient prosody from them. Many of us who have composed melodies for ancient texts have therefore mimicked this practice, if only for lack of a better starting point. Probably this approach is indeed well suited for many kinds of poetry; it has been argued that even early epic song worked in a similar way. But this will not help us with most strophic song. Whenever the ancient Greeks composed in strophes, they replicated the rhythm in each of them with great precision, while taking (almost) no heed of where the accents were placed in the verses: in sharp contrast to English, for instance, Greek accents were purely melodic and thus did not contribute to the rhythm of the language. As a consequence, if ancient Greek poetry performed matching strophes to similar melodies, these could not possibly all follow the contours of speech melody. One may doubt the condition—might they rather have varied the melody from strophe to strophe? Unfortunately, the extant musical fragments contradict that possibility at least for the songs of tragedy. Still, the matter may have been different with the much shorter strophes of Sappho, Alcaeus, and other archaic composers. Here the frequent repetition of a small structure may well have called for some melodic variation—especially when a single performer could easily adjust melodic patterns on the fly, which a chorus cannot.

The guidelines for 'composing according to the accent' are rather straightforward. In each Greek word, apart from small ones such as prepositions and articles, there is a certain point where the gliding voice of speech reached the highest pitch. This point is indicated graphically by the accent marks: an acute or grave was located at the end of the vowel or diphthong, with a circumflex, rather than at the beginning. After this point, the pitch dropped markedly except in the case of a grave accent, where the end of the word followed suit, leaving no time for a pitch drop. From the start of the next unit up until its own accent point, the pitch does not fall again. Notably, there is never the need for a sharp rise—it is the downward movement that defines the accent preceding it.

Converted from the continuous glide of the speaking voice to the individual notes of song, this means: (1) within an accentual unit, the pitch should not fall before the accent is reached. (2) If possible, fall immediately after it. In the extant melodies, syllables with circumflex often bear a couple of descending notes (or even more), but often also a single note or even a rising movement, followed by a drop on the next syllable. On the sentence level, melodies tend to fall gradually, being reset to a higher level after a phrase boundary; this is just a typical feature of human speech. Words bearing emphasis, including proper names, may also be elevated to higher pitch, relative to their context. It is worthwhile observing how the extant melodies bear these 'rules' out (or don't); for us, they may provide a conveniently tight framework within which musical creativity can unfold.

All this gives us a toolkit for raising ancient poetry from the dormancy of printed form to the auditory life for which it was meant. The journey, however, does not end here. There was chromaticism, opening up potentials of modulation unheard of in Western music. Most excitingly, perhaps, the music of the Classical period involved the so-called *harmonía*, incorporating microintervals down to quartertones, typically played on kinds of doublepipes which music archaeology has only just begun to make sense of. Lots of fun still lies ahead.

### **Practice Learning How To Sing**

Read the first line of the *Iliad*, preferably memorizing it.

μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος

Next listen to the singing of this line, paying attention to the high notes and the lower notes,

Stefan Hagel Sings the Iliad. 1

Each accented vowel has a high pitch after which there is a falling off or a lower pitch. For **μῆνιν** the high point and fall occur on the eta. For **ἄειδε** the high point is on the alpha and the fall is on the diphthong **ει**. For **θεὰ** there is a rise to the alpha. For **Πηληϊάδεω** the fall occurs after the alpha. **Ἀχιλῆος** rises towards the eta and falls within it.

Try the same exercises with the first seven lines of the *Iliad*, again preferably memorizing them.

μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή, ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς.

Again listen to Stefan Hagel's singing of these lines, paying attention to the high notes and the lower notes,

Stefan Hagel Sings the Iliad**.** 2

<sup>1</sup> https://soundcloud.com/stefan-hagel-448623467/il-1-1-100-3.

<sup>2</sup> https://soundcloud.com/stefan-hagel-448623467/il-1-1-100-3.

For comparison, listen to the same text in reconstructed classical Attic pronunciation,

The Beginning of the Iliad Spoken. 3

As you practice pitch accent, use this simple strategy to hear the rhythm and melody of the words.

<sup>3</sup> https://soundcloud.com/stefan-hagel-448623467/il-1-1-100-spoken.

# Module 7 **Nouns, Pronouns, and their Case Functions**

# **Nouns**

Nouns in Greek are defined just like nouns are in English, but the way they create meaning is different. As in English, Greek nouns (**ὀνόματα**) refer to people, places, things, and ideas. Greek nouns have endings. English nouns can change form when they show possession as in **Jada's book**, where the **'s** is added as a suffix and indicates that the book belongs to Jada. English nouns also change form when expressing the plural: two **suns**, three **oxen**, four **mice**. The endings on Greek nouns, as we have seen previously, create the same meanings as English does through form change, word order, and the use of prepositional phrases.

## **Pronouns**

In both languages, pronouns have the same definition: they take the place of nouns. The function of the Greek pronoun (**ἀντωνυμία**) differs from the English because it creates meaning through case endings much more extensively than the English pronoun does.

# **Greek Noun Sets 1–10**

In Greek there are three noun declensions: first, second, and third. In this text, the third declension, noun sets 9 and 10, is taught first (Module 13) because it offers the most complexity. Once you understand the third declension, it is easier for you to learn the remaining two declensions. Learning the third declension first also reinforces why the stem, the base to which endings are attached, is taken from the genitive singular. Also by learning the third declension before the first (noun sets 1–6) and the second (noun sets 7 and 8), you will be less inclined to match or rhyme noun and adjective endings when you modify a noun with an adjective.

Since each Greek noun takes only one set of endings, this text numbers the endings by sets 1–10. Each numbered set has ten endings. The aim in numbering them is to make clear that each noun has only one set of endings. The numbers are also a helpful way to refer to the endings when identifying nouns and discussing things like case and function.

What follows explains what is meant by a noun's gender, number, and case.

**Gender** is a grammatical category and not identical with a noun's sex. Often, however, words that refer to living beings of the male sex are masculine in gender; words that refer to living beings of the female sex are feminine in gender. In Greek non-living things can be masculine, feminine, or neuter (neither masculine nor feminine). Since noun gender is often random, each noun's gender must be memorized.

**Number** is singular (one) or plural (more than one).

**The cases** in English are three: subjective, objective, possessive. In Greek they are five: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and vocative, or, ordered differently, nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and vocative. Each case has certain specific functions, indicating the meaning of each noun in relation to other words in the sentence.

Remember that, in Greek, a noun's case ending determines its meaning in the sentence.

### **The Five Cases**

In what follows you learn some of the case functions of Greek nouns. For a list of all the case functions covered in Parts I and II of the *21st-Century* series, see the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I. In this Module and in Appendix I, the case functions are placed in order of frequency of occurrence, relative to each other. And so a case's first function is the one you will encounter most often when reading authentic texts. The case functions found below were chosen both on the basis of frequency and because they illustrate an important function of each case. This latter is particularly true of the function of separation without a preposition for the genitive case, which is not that frequent in occurrence. Most of the noun functions below use case endings to create meaning. A few of the noun functions create meaning through case ending or a prepositional phrase. Remember that the basic building blocks for sentences in English are prepositional phrases and word order. In Greek, the basic building blocks are word endings, prepositional phrases, and word order. The preposition and its object are presented in detail in Module 8. If you are eager and wish to better your understanding of the preposition and its object in English now, you can follow the links below:

Khan Academy Prepositional Phrases1

Quia Practice with Prepositions. 2

## **The Nominative Case**

The nominative has two main functions.

**Function 1, Subject (Smyth's Greek Grammar 938 and Cambridge Grammar of Classical Greek 30.2,** hitherto abbreviated to as **SGG** and **CGCG).** The nominative case's most frequent function is to mark a subject of the verb.

In this sentence,

**ὁ ἀδελφὸς** (the brother) φέρει (carries) λίθους (stones), *The brother carries stones*,

**brother** is the subject. The verb is **carries. Stones** is the direct object. The ending **-ος** tells us that the noun, ἀδελφ**ός,** is nominative in case. Since the main function of the nominative case is as a subject, the ending **-ος** indicates that **brother** serves this function in the sentence.

**Function 2, Predicate Nominative (SGG 939; CGCG 30.3).** A second common function of the **nominative case** is as a **predicate nominative**. Predicate nominatives occur when there is a linking verb that connects the subject to a noun or a pronoun that gives information about the subject. The verb **is** is the most common linking verb.

This sentence,

ὁ Ὅμηρ**ός** (Homer) ἐστι (is) **ποιητής** (a poet), *Homer is a poet*,

includes two nouns in the nominative case, Ὅμηρ**ος** and ποιητ**ής**. The case endings -**ος** and **-ης** are both nominative. One noun is the subject of the verb and the other is a **predicate nominative**. Word order and context indicate

<sup>1</sup> https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/grammar/parts-of-speech-the-prepositionand-the-conjunction/introduction-to-prepositions/v/meet-the-preposition.

<sup>2</sup> https://www.quia.com/quiz/298373.html?AP\_rand=1278083422.

that Ὅμηρ**ος** is the subject and ποιητ**ής** is the predicate nominative: **Homer** (nominative, subject) is (verb) a **poet** (predicate nominative).

Though adjectives have yet to be introduced, it is helpful to compare and to contrast the predicate nominative with the predicate adjective (*SGG* 910; *CGCG*  30.3). Adjectives, as you will learn soon, agree in gender, case, and number with the nouns they modify. The difference between a predicate nominative and a predicate adjective is that the predicate nominative is a function for nouns and the predicate adjective is a function for adjectives.

This sentence,

ὁ Ὅμηρ**ός** (Homer) ἐστι (is) **ἀγαθός** (good), *Homer is good*,

includes one noun in the nominative case, **Ὅμηρος**, and one adjective, **ἀγαθός**, in the nominative case. Each word has the nominative case ending **-ος**. Word order and context indicate that **Ὅμηρος** is the subject of the verb and **ἀγαθός** is the predicate adjective. If we change the word order of the sentence,

ἀγαθ**ός** ἐστι ὁ Ὅμηρ**ος**, *good is Homer*,

the meaning remains the same and the function of the noun as subject and of the adjective as predicate adjective remain the same, **good** (predicate adjective) is (verb) Homer (nominative, subject). Module 9 presents more information on linking verbs in English and in Greek. If you are eager to better your understanding of linking verbs in English now, follow the links below:

```
Khan Academy Linking Verbs3
```
Quia Practice with Linking Verbs. <sup>4</sup>

### **The Genitive Case**

The genitive case has four commonly occurring functions.

**Function 1, Genitive of Possession (SGG 1297; CGCG 30.28).** The genitive of possession indicates that one noun owns another.

In this example,

τὸ βιβλίον **τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ**, *the book of the brother or the brother's book*,

**the brother** possesses **the book**. In Greek there is no equivalent of the preposition **of**. Rather the genitive case ending, **-ου**, on the noun **ἀδελφοῦ**

<sup>3</sup> https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/grammar/parts-of-speech-the-verb/linkingand-helping-verbs/v/linking-verbs-the-parts-of-speech-grammar.

<sup>4</sup> https://www.quia.com/rr/409539.html?AP\_rand=155051551&playHTML=1.

*brother,* indicates ownership of the noun **βιβλίον** *book*. In Greek, case endings, here **–ου,** will determine how we assign meaning to nouns when we translate them into English. In English the preposition **of** or the apostrophe followed by **s**, **'s**, creates ownership, informing us that **the brother** possesses **the book**. In Greek we call this function a **genitive of possession**.

**Function 2, Genitive of Dependence (SGG 1290; CGCG 30.28).** The genitive of dependence indicates a relationship between two nouns that does not involve ownership where the noun in the genitive case further defines a second noun.

In this example,

δῶρα **χρυσοῦ**, *gifts of gold*,

the two nouns, **δῶρα χρυσοῦ**, work together to form the phrase, **δῶρα χρυσοῦ** *gifts of gold*.

In English, word order and the preposition **of** work together so that we understand that **gifts** and **of gold** create a meaningful **phrase**. Again, in Greek there is no equivalent of the English preposition **of**. Rather the genitive case ending, **-ου**, indicates that the noun **χρυσοῦ** *gold* gives defining information about a second noun **δῶρα**. We call this function the **genitive of dependence**.

**Function 3, Partitive Genitive (SGG 1306; CGCG 30.25).** The partitive genitive is a third commonly occurring function of the genitive case. The partitive genitive expresses the idea of the **greater whole** of the smaller part.

In this example,

οὐδεὶς **τῶν Ἑλλήνων,** no one **of the Greeks,**

the noun **τῶν Ἑλλήνων** *the Greeks* with its ending in the genitive case, -**ων**, gives more information about the second noun, **οὐδείς** *no one*. The two together form a **phrase οὐδεὶς τῶν Ἑλλήνων** *no one of the Greeks*. **οὐδείς** *no one* is the smaller part of the greater whole, **τῶν Ἑλλήνων** *the Greeks*.

In English word order and the preposition **of** work together so that we understand that **no one** and **of the Greeks** create a meaningful **phrase**. Again in Greek there is no equivalent of the English preposition **of.** Rather the genitive case ending, **-ων**, indicates that the noun **τῶν Ἑλλήνων** *the Greeks* gives defining information about the noun **οὐδείς** *no one*. We call this function a **partitive genitive**.

**Function 4, Genitive of Separation (SGG 1392; CGCG 30.34).** A fourth function of the genitive is to express the idea of **separation**. Though the genitive of separation without a preposition does not occur frequently, it does express an important conceptual function of the genitive case.

In the sentence,

λύουσι (they free) τοὺς Ἑλλήνους (Greeks) **δεσμῶν** (fetters), *they free the Greeks from fetters*,

**they** is the subject. **Free** is the verb. **The Greeks** is the direct object. **From fetters** expresses the idea of **separating** someone from some thing. In English **separation** is expressed by the prepositional phrase **from fetters.** In Greek there is no prepositional phrase. Rather Greek expresses **separation** by placing the noun **δεσμῶν,** *fetters*, in the genitive case. The ending **-ων** tells us that the noun **δεσμῶν** *fetters* is genitive. The genitive case and context work together to indicate the meaning of separation that the noun has in the sentence.

With the genitive of separation, the idea of motion is often present. Compare and contrast these two sentences,

```
σὺ (you) βάθρων (steps) ἵστης (get up),
```
and

σὺ (you) **ἐκ** (from) **βάθρων** (steps) ἵστης (get up), *You get up from the steps*.

In both sentences, **you** is the subject and **get up** is the verb. In the first sentence, the idea of separation, **from the steps**, is expressed by the genitive case ending, **-ων**, on the noun **βάθρων** *steps*. No preposition is present. In the second sentence, the prepositional phrase, **ἐκ βάθρων** *from the steps*, expresses separation just as the prepositional phrase **from the steps** does in English. Note that in authetic texts, the genitive of separation without a preposition does not occur as frequently as does separation with a preposition.

In the above you have learned that Greek creates meaning through case endings and English creates the same meaning by using prepositional phrases. You have also learned that Greek and English can use prepositional phrases as building blocks to create the same meaning. When translating the genitive case into English, remember that you will often have to supply the prepositions **of** or **from**.

### **The Dative Case**

The dative case has four main functions.

**Function 1, Indirect Object (SGG 1457 and 1469; CGCG 30.37).** A frequently occurring function of the dative case is as an **indirect object**. An indirect object indirectly receives the action of a verb or is indirectly involved in a verb's action.

In the English sentence,

she gives money **to him**,

**She** is the subject; **gives** is the verb; and **money** is the direct object. **To him** is the indirect object and is indirectly involved in the action. **To him** is indirectly involved because it receives the money. It is the **money** that she gives, not the **him**.

Consider this sentence,

δίδωσι (he gives) τό βιβλίον (book) **τῷ ἀδελφῷ** (brother), *he gives the book to the brother*.

**He** is the subject. **Gives** is the verb. **Book** is the direct object—it directly receives the action of the verb. **To the brother** is the indirect object and indirectly receives the action of the verb.

In English, the indirect object is expressed by the prepositional phrase **to the brother**. In Greek, the case ending **-ῳ** tells us that the noun **ἀδελφῷ** *brother* is in the dative. The case ending **-ῳ** and context work together to create the noun's meaning in the sentence.

Consider two more examples,

δεικνύουσιν (they show) ἀσπίδα (a shield) **τῷ ἀδελφῷ** (brother), *they show a shield to the brother*,

and

γράμματα (a letter) **αὐτῷ** (him) ἐκόμιζον (I bring), *I bring a letter for him*.

In the first sentence **they** is the subject; **show** is the verb; **a shield** is the direct object, directly receiving the action of the verb. **Το the brother** is the indirect object and indirectly receives the action of the verb. In the second sentence, **I** is the subject; **bring** is the verb; **letter** is the direct object; and **for him** is the indirect object. English creates the meaning of the indirect object through the prepositional phrases, **to the brother** and **for him**. In Greek the ending **-ῳ** tells us that each noun, **ἀδελφῷ** *brother* and **αὐτῷ** *him*, is in the dative case. The dative case and context work together to create the meaning of the indirect object in the Greek sentences.

Finally compare and contrast these two sentences,

```
ταῦτα (these things) αὐτῇ (her) λέγω (I say)
```
and

ταῦτα (these things) **πρὸς** (to) **αὐτὴν** (her) λέγω (I say). *I say these things to her*.

In both sentences **I** is the subject and **say** is the verb. **These things** is the direct object and **to her** is the indirect object. In the first the indirect object is expressed by the ending -**ῇ** of the dative case of the pronoun **αὐτῇ** *her*. In the second the indirect object is expressed by the prepositional phrase, **πρὸς αὐτήν** *to her***,** just as the prepositional phrase **to her** does in English.

**Function 2, Dative of Means or Instrument (SGG 1503; CGCG 30.43–44).** Another frequently occurring function of the dative case is **as means or instrument.**

In the sentence,

βάλλει (he hits) με (me) **πέτρῳ** (rock), *he hits me with a rock*,

**He** is the subject. **Hits** is the verb. **Me** is the direct object, directly receiving the action of the verb. The English prepositional phrase **with a rock** translates the meaning of the Greek **dative of means** or **instrument**, informing us of the means or instrument by which the action of the verb happens. English creates this same meaning through the prepositional phrase **with a rock**. In Greek, the case ending **-ῳ** tells us that the noun πέτρ**ῳ** *rock* is in the dative. The ending **-ῳ** and context create the meaning of means or instrument for the noun, **πέτρῳ** *rock*. English builds meaning with prepositional phrases and Greek does the same through a mixture of case endings and prepositional phrases.

Consider this sentence,

φεύγει εἰς τὴν γῆν **νηί**, *she flees to the land by ship*.

**She** is the subject. **Flees** is the verb. **To the land** (εἰς τὴν γῆν) is a prepositional phrase in both languages. In Greek the case ending **-ι** tells us that the noun **νηί** *ship* is dative. The ending **-ι** and context create the meaning of means or instrument for the noun **νηί** *ship*. In English the prepositional phrase **by ship** creates the same meaning as does the dative case of the Greek noun **νηί** *ship*. Again we see that English creates meaning with prepositional phrases and Greek does the same through case endings.

**Function 3, Dative of Possession (SGG 1476; CGCG 30.41).** The dative of possession expresses ownership of one noun over another.

Like the genitive case, the dative case may express ownership, having the same function as the genitive. Consider these two examples,

τοῦ **ἀδελφοῦ** (the brother) υἱός (son), *the brother's son* or *the son of the brother*,

and

τῷ **ἀδελφῷ** (the brother) υἱός (son), *the brother's son* or *the son of the brother*. In each sentence, case ending -**ου** or -**ῳ** and context work together to create the meaning of ownership between the two nouns.

In these examples,

**Δαρείου** (Dareios) ἡ γνώμη (judgment) *Dareios' judgment* or *the judgment of Dareios*;

and

**Δαρείῳ** (Dareios) ἡ γνώμη (judgment) *Dareios' judgment* or *the judgment of Dareios*,

the same explanation as given above applies: the case ending -**ου** or -**ῳ** and context work together to create the meaning of ownership between the two nouns. Though less frequent than the genitive of possession, the dative of possession occcurs in places where the genitive does also.

When a linking verb, often the verb **to be** (**εἶναι**), is used in sentences like these,

τῷ **Ὁμήρῳ** (Homer) ἐστὶ (is) ναῦς (ship), *there is a ship to Homer* (**Homer** has a ship),

and

```
τῷ Ὁμήρῳ (Homer) ἐστὶ (is) κύων (dog),
there is a dog to Homer (Homer has a dog),
```
then the dative case, more typically than the genitive, expresses possession. In each case ending, -**ῳ**, and context work together to create the meaning of ownership between the two nouns.

English shows ownership through an apostrophe followed by **s** (the brother**'s** son) and through a prepositional phrase using **of** or **to** (the son **of the brother**  or the son **to the brother**). Greek expresses the same meaning through the genitive or dative case endings.

**Function 4, Dative of Place Where (SGG 1530; CGCG 30.47).** The fourth most frequently occurring function of the dative case expresses **place where**: she lies on the ground; or they fight **at Marathon**.

When expressing place where in poetry Greek may use the dative case without a preposition,

**γῇ** (ground) κεῖται (she lies), *she lies on the ground*.

In prose Greek typically uses a preposition, often **ἐν**, followed by the noun in the dative case. In these two examples,

**ἐν** (on) **γῇ** (ground) κεῖται (she lies), *she lies on the ground*,

and

```
ἐν (in) τῷ νηῷ (the temple) ὁ στρατηγὸς (the general) ἦν (was), 
the general was in the temple,
```
the endings -**ῃ** and -**ῳ** tell us that the nouns γ**ῇ** and νη**ῷ** are in the dative case. The preposition followed by the noun in the dative case work together to create a prepositional phrase that expresses **place where**.

With some place names Greek uses the dative without a preposition,

πολεμέουσι (they fight) **Μαραθῶνι** (at Marathon), *they fight at Marathon*.

The endings **-ι** tells us that the noun, **Μαραθῶνι**, is in the dative case. The noun in the dative case by itself, commonly called the locative, or with a preposition express the idea of place where.

In the case of **place where**, both English and Greek may create the same meaning through prepositional phrases. Greek often uses the preposition **ἐν** followed by a noun in the dative case. English typically uses the prepositions **in, at,** or **on** followed by a noun in the objective case. As we saw in the previous unit, nouns that are translated with prepositions create prepositional phrases and are called the **objects of the preposition**.

### **The Accusative Case**

The accusative case has two main functions.

**Function 1, Direct Object (SGG 1553; CGCG 30.8).** The main function of the accusative case is as a **direct object.**

For example in the sentence,

δίδωσι (he gives) **τό βιβλίον** (book) Ὁμήρ**ῳ** (Homer),

*he gives the book to Homer*.

**He** is the subject. **Gives** is the verb. **The book** is the direct object and directly receives the action of the verb. The case ending **-ον** tells us that the noun **βιβλίον** *book* is in the accusative case. **Ὁμήρῳ** *to Homer* is in the dative case, indicated by the dative case ending -**ῳ** and is the indirect object, indirectly receiving the action of the verb.

Consider this sentence,

ποίει (he holds) **ὁρτὴν** (a festival) Διονύσ**ῳ** (Dionysos), *he holds a festival for Dionysos*.

**He** is the subject. **Holds** is the verb. **Festival** is the direct object and directly receives the action of the verb. The ending **-ην** indicates that **ὁρτήν** *festival* is accusative. **Διονύσῳ** *Dionysos* is in the dative case, indicated by the dative case ending -**ῳ** and is the indirect object, indirectly receiving the action of the verb.

Note that English uses word order to indicate a subject of the verb and direct object. In the sentences,

the man sees the woman,

and

the woman sees the man,

word order determines who performs the verb's action and who receives it. In these examples,

ὁ ἀνὴρ (*the man*, nominative subject) τὴν γυναῖκα (*the woman*, accusative direct object) ὁράει (*sees*), *the man sees the woman,*

and

ἡ γυνὴ (*the woman*, nominative subject) τὸν ἄνδρα (*the man*, accusative direct object) ὁράει (*sees*),

*the woman sees the man,*

case ending, not word order, communicates who performs the verb's action and who receives it.

**Function 2, Extent of Space and Duration of Time (SGG 1580; CGCG 30.15–16).** The accusative case expresses the ideas of extent of space or duration of time. In the sentence,

they march **for five miles**,

**They** is the subject. **March** is the verb. **For five miles** expresses the idea of extent of space.

Consider the similar Greek sentence,

ἐλαύνουσι (they march) πέντε (five) **στάδια** (stades), *they march for five stades*.

Greek creates the meaning of extent of space by placing **στάδια** *stades* in the accusative case. The ending **-α** of the noun **στάδια** *stades* indicates that **στάδια** *stades* is in the accusative case. Context and case work together to communicate to the reader the meaning extent of space. English creates the same meaning through the prepositional phrase **for five stades** (a stade, by the way, is equivalent to about 200 meters or 600 feet).

Greek uses the accusative case to express duration of time. In this sentence,

ἐλαύνουσι (they march) πέντε (five) **ἡμέρας** (days), *they march for five days*,

**They** is the subject. **March** is the verb. In English the prepositional phrase **for five days** expresses the idea of duration of time. Greek expresses this same idea by placing the noun ἡμέρ**ας** *days* in the accusative case. The case ending **-ας** tells us that the noun is in the accusative. Context and case ending work together to indicate that πέντε ἡμέρ**ας** has the meaning **duration of time**.

### **The Vocative Case**

The vocative case has one function.

**Function 1, Direct Address (SGG 1283; CGCG 30.55).** Greek uses the vocative when one person is directly addressing another. In these sentences,

**Ὅμηρε** (Homer), πῶς (how) οἰκήσεις (will you live),

and

**ὦ Ὅμηρε** (Homer), πῶς (how) οἰκήσεις (will you live), *Homer, how will you live?*,

the ending **-ε** tells us that the noun, **Ὅμηρε**, is in the vocative case. The ending **-ε** and context work together to express the meaning, direct address. In the second sentence, the interjection **ὦ,** the ending **–ε,** and context work together to express the meaning, direct address. English creates direct address in writing by setting the person addressed off from the rest of the sentence with one or two commas. In speaking, English uses pause and intonation to indicate direct address.

### **Case and Function Chart**

Since English uses prepositions in many situations where Greek does not, when translating into English you often need to supply prepositions not present in Greek. The chart below tells you the case; the function of the case; and what preposition you need to supply in English when there is no preposition present in Greek. **None** indicates that there is no preposition to supply when translating from Greek into English. **None (ἐκ, ἀπό)** indicates that there is no additional preposition to supply when translating from Greek into English and gives the preposition that is commonly present in ancient Greek.

Also noted below is that nouns and pronouns in the genitive, dative, and accusative cases can all serve as objects of a preposition. Some prepositions take their objects in only one case. Other prepositions may have their objects in two or in all three cases. Prepositions are covered in Module 8.


The above are all case functions for nouns and pronouns.

## **Apposition of Nouns and Pronouns**

A common grammatical occurrence that happens in all cases of nouns and pronouns is apposition. Apposition is defined as an instance in a sentence when two nouns or two pronouns are in the same case referring to the same person or thing. The second noun or pronoun renames the first. Apposition can happen to a noun in any case and the second noun matches the case of the first. Consider the following examples. In each, the main noun is bolded and the noun in apposition is underlined.

#### **Nominative**

**ἐγὼ** ταῦτα τῷ Ὁμήρῳ, ποιητής, δίδωμι. *I, a poet, give these things to Homer.*

#### **Genitive**

τὸ βιβλίον **τοῦ Ὁμήρου**, ποιητοῦ, σοὶ δίδωμι. *I give to you the book of Homer, a poet.*

#### **Dative**

ἐγὼ ταῦτα **τῷ Ὁμήρῳ**, ποιητῇ, δίδωμι. *I give these things to Homer, a poet.*

# **Αccusative**

ὁράει **τὸν Ὅμηρον** ποιητήν. *She sees Homer, a poet.*

### **Vocative** ὦ **βασιλεῦ** Κῦρε, ἔλθε. *King Kyros, come.*

The important items to note are that the two nouns refer to the same person or thing and each has the same case. Apposition occurs frequently in this textbook and in the authentic texts you are preparing to read.

### **Parsing**

Parsing English and Greek sentences enables you to understand what you have memorized, using analysis and logic. English has three cases: subjective for subjects; objective for objects; possessive for ownership. In parsing you identify the words in a sentence and give their case and function. In the sentence,

you stretch the frozen moments with your fear

**you** is in the subjective case and is the subject. **Stretch** is the verb. **The** and **frozen** are adjectives modifying the noun **moments**. **Moments** is in the objective case and is the direct object of **stretch**. **With** is a preposition. **Your** is a possessive adjective modifying the noun **fear**. **Fear** is in the objective case and is the object of the preposition **with**.

Parsing solidifies your understanding of the key conceptual system this book presents. It turns memorization into understanding. If you struggle with this aspect of the course, do not stress. Struggling with understanding is a necessary part of learning. Persist in your struggles and eventually you will come to understand language itself in a novel way, exercising even greater ability to communicate effectively.

**Lucian of Samosota c. 125 CE.** Born on the banks of the upper Euphrates River, Lucian was an Assyrian who wrote in ancient Greek but whose native language was probably Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic. What we know of Lucian comes from his own works. He was a satirist and rhetorician. He ridiculed hypocrisy, pedantry, religion, and superstition. Educated in Ionia, he lived in Athens for approximately 10 years during which time it is surmised that he wrote many of his works. Of the over 80 writings attributed to him, this textbook offers excerpts from *A True Story*, **Ἀληθῆ διηγήματα**; *The Lover of Lies*, **Φιλοψευδής**; and *The Ass*, **ὁ Ὄνος**, though it is not certain whether Lucian is the author of this last work. In his own day Lucian was very popular. Today his writings continue to exert influence.

**Practice Parsing in English.** For this translation of an excerpt from Lucian's *The Ass*, **ὁ Ὄνος**, use the **Case and Function Chart** to tell these six things (1) what case each noun would have in Greek; (2) what function each case has; (3) where Greek would use the preposition **ἐκ** or **παρά** + the genitive; **ἐν** + the dative; and **εἰς** + the accusative; (4) what words are verbs; (5) what words are adverbs; and (6) what words are conjunctions. Answers are found in the Answer Key.


**Euripides of Athens, Εὐριπίδης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c.480–406 BCE.** An innovator who did not gain wide acceptance until after his death, Euripides wrote satyr plays and tragedies. He introduced comedy into tragedy and presented the heroes and heroines of his plays as everyday people. He was a proponent of the new music, which broke with tradition and is one feature of his work that shocked some of his contemporaries. In several plays (*Helen*, *Ion*, *Iphigeneia in Tauris*), he created tragicomic plots that foreshadowed the so-called New Comedy. He is said to have composed his tragedies in a cave on the island of Salamis, to have been solitary and surly, and to have been prosecuted by Kleon for impiety. In support of this charge, Diogenes Laertius says that Protagoras first read his skeptical work on the gods at Euripides' house, in which he argued that it did not matter whether the gods existed—he was an agnostic; that there were two sides to every question, each opposed to the other; that the soul was nothing apart from the senses; that everything is true; that all values were relative; and that "man is the measure of all things, of things that are that they are, and of things that are not that they are not." Euripides' unpopularity probably caused him to accept an invitation to the court of Arkhelaos in Makedonia in c. 408 B.C., where about two years later he died. He wrote ninety-two plays and had four victories in the Athenian annual dramatic competition and festival in honor of Dionysos. Nineteen of his plays survive, more than any other tragedian. Without them our view of tragedy would be more rigid, dogmatic, and inaccurate. In upcoming modules, this textbook offers adapted selections from Euripides' *Alkestis*, *Bakkhai*, *Helen*, *Herakles*, *Iphigeneia in Tauris*, and *Medea*.

**Module 7 Practice Reading Aloud.** Practice reading this excerpt from Euripides' *Alkestis*. Read the excerpt a few times, paying attention to the sound each syllable makes and trying to hear the rhythm of the words.

### **Ἄλκηστις**

Ἅλιε καὶ φάος ἁμέρας,

245 οὐράνιαί τε δῖναι νεφέλας δρομαίου

### **Ἄδμητος**

ὁρᾷ σὲ κἀμέ, δύο κακῶς πεπραγότας, οὐδὲν θεοὺς δράσαντας ἀνθ' ὅτου θανῇ.

### **Ἄλκηστις**

γαῖά τε καὶ μελάθρων στέγαι νυμφίδιοί τε κοῖ-

ται πατρίας Ἰωλκοῦ.

#### **Ἄδμητος**

250 ἔπαιρε σαυτήν, ὦ τάλαινα, μὴ προδῷς· λίσσου δὲ τοὺς κρατοῦντας οἰκτῖραι θεούς.

### **Ἄλκηστις**


οἴμοι· πικράν γε τήνδε μοι ναυκληρίαν ἔλεξας. ὦ δύσδαιμον, οἷα πάσχομεν.

#### **Verse Translation**

#### **Alkestis**

Sun and light of day, Swirling clouds above

#### **Admetos**

Who gaze at you and me, we suffer, Yet did the gods no wrong that merits death.

#### **Alkestis**

Land and house and childhood bed, Iolkos, once my home.

#### **Admetos**

Arise, now up, poor dear, dare not betray me. Beseech the powerful gods to pity you.

#### **Alkestis**

Look, I see oars; Look, I see a ship Anchored there at port and see a ferryman, Hands on punt. He carries souls away. Kharon calls me, Ready? Why delay? Hurry. You detain me. Urging me on, he Presses me to go.

### **Admetos**

Alas, this ship you call by name pains me.

Oh ill of fate, what sufferings must we endure.

To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel's expert reading with a pitch accent, follow the link below:

Alkestis 244–259. 5

# **Etymology Corner VII by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 3

**Orthography, Module 1.** Previously we learned that orthography refers to the correct way of writing a word. In the orthography section of Module 1, there are three accents. The rising pitch is the **acute** (ὀξύς) accent, which comes from the Latin **acutus** *sharp*; **grave** (βαρύς) is an neutral accent, marking the end of a word's pitch rise (reread Stefan Hagel on pitch accent, if you need a refresher) from the Latin **gravis** *heavy*; and the one that *flexes around*, that is, bends up then down, is the **circumflex** (περισπώμενος) accent, from the Latin **circum-** *around* and **flectere** *to bend*. As noted, the accents originally denoted musical pitch. This makes etymological sense, since **accent** comes from the Latin prefix **ad-** *towards* and the Latin verb **cantare** *to sing*, meaning you are adding musicality to prose. When we run across the word **prosody**, we note that it is derived from the original Greek prefix **προς-** *towards* and noun **ᾠδή** *song*, the same two words that are used to build the word **accent**.

**What to Study and Do 7.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have learned that case ending determines meaning, that you know how to use the **Case and Function Chart** when reading and translating, and that you understand what apposition is. It is a good idea to review the information in the **Case and Function Chart** a couple of times a week.

**Learning Tip 7: Create a Linked Story.** This textbook presents you with a variety of strategies for remembering information. These strategies can be used to memorize essential information that you need for this course, for life, or for any random information that you need or want to remember. The strategies require you to use your imagination. Imagination always beats your will to remember.

<sup>5</sup> https://loom.com/share/fc958326f10b478dbe22c07c4b54b684.

Try this experiment. Use your willpower to remember these 12 words:

fillmore, pierce, buchanan, lincoln, johnson, grant, hayes, garfield, arthur, cleveland, harrison, cleveland.

Spend a minute willing yourself to remember the words in order. After one minute, write down as many of the words as you can in order and from memory. Most people can remember about four or five of the words.

Next, imagine that you are standing at your kitchen sink and you fill more water into a pitcher than it can hold. You **pierce** the pitcher with a long needle and watch as the water pours out of the hole and down the drain. Out of the drain a shiny **new cannon** rises and situates itself on your countertop. Make the scene come alive in your mind. The **new cannon** shoots **links** of chain at an **inn** across the street from your house. You run to the inn to warn the people inside. Upon entering the inn, you have an urgent need to use the **john**. As you use the **john**, you call your **son**. You ask your son if he will **grant** you one wish. He says yes. You ask him to take some freshly harvested **hay** to a **far field** where King **Arthur** awaits, seated on his horse. Your son **cleaves** to the hay as he picks it up from the **land**. He gets in a truck driven by a **hairy son** and once again **cleaves** tightly to the hay he grabbed from the **land**. Spend a minute using your imagination to place the images into your mind, visualizing the events happening in real time. Use as many senses as you can when you replay the events in your mind. You should find that after one minute or less you are able to remember all the words in order and with ease. You should also find that you can recite the list forewards and backwards. Congratulate yourself on having memorized US presidents 13–24. Try using a similar strategy for remembering the first twelve US presidents. If you find you need some assistance, look at the Answer Key for one possible solution. To watch Yanjaa, a super-memorizer, use a similar strategy to remember random items in a magazine, follow this link:

Yanjaa's Memory Tips. 1

<sup>1</sup> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8eRcAaTYfcU.

# Module 8 **Prepositions and Prefixes**

# **Prepositions**

A Greek preposition (**πρόθεσις**) has the same definition and the same function as does its English counterpart. Prepositions are typically one to two syllable words that take a noun or pronoun as an object. Consider these English examples:

**in** a great civil war; **on** a great battle-field; **of** that war; **above** our poor power; **to** the unfinished work; **for** the great task; **from** the earth;

and take note of the **preposition** and its object, which are referred to as a **prepositional phrase**. Prepositional phrases are a common building block for creating meaning both in Greek and in English.

Consider the following passage from Herman Melville's *Moby Dick* and note how frequently prepositions occur (**bold** marks a preposition and underline its object):

Call me Ishmael. Some years ago—never mind how long precisely having little or no money **in** my purse, and nothing particular to interest me **on** shore, I thought I would sail about a little and see the watery part **of** the world. It is a way I have **of** driving **off** the spleen and regulating the circulation. Whenever I find myself growing grim **about** the mouth; whenever it is a damp, drizzly November **in** my soul; whenever I find myself involuntarily pausing **before** coffin warehouses, and bringing **up** the rear **of** every funeral I meet; and especially whenever my hypos get such an upper hand **of** me, that it requires a strong moral principle to prevent me **from**  deliberately stepping **into** the street, and methodically knocking people's hats **off**—then, I account it high time to get **to** sea as soon as I can. This is my substitute **for** pistol and ball. **With** a philosophical flourish Cato throws himself **upon** his sword; I quietly take **to** the ship. There is nothing surprising **in** this. If they but knew it, almost all men **in** their degree, some time or other, cherish very nearly the same feelings **towards** the ocean **with** me.

In eight sentences there are twenty-three prepositional phrases. The preposition comes before its object almost every time. Leaving out the prepositional phrases, reread the passage, noting how much meaning is lost.

Call me Ishmael. Some years ago—never mind how long precisely having little or no money, and nothing particular to interest me, I thought I would sail about a little and see the watery part. It is a way I have. Whenever I find myself growing grim; whenever it is a damp, drizzly November; whenever I find myself involuntarily pausing and bringing; and especially whenever my hypos get such an upper hand that it requires a strong moral principle to prevent me—then, I account it high time to get as soon as I can. This is my substitute. Cato throws himself; I quietly take. There is nothing surprising. If they but knew it, almost all men, some time or other, cherish very nearly the same feelings.

Consider the following Greek passage from Herodotos' *Histories*:

ἀναχθέντες δὲ **ἐκ** τῆς Κρότωνος οἱ Πέρσαι ἐκπίπτουσι τῇσι νηυσὶ **ἐς** Ἰηπυγίην, καί σφεας δουλεύοντας ἐνθαῦτα Γίλλος ἀνὴρ Ταραντῖνος φυγὰς ῥυσάμενος ἀπήγαγε **παρὰ** βασιλέα Δαρεῖον. ὁ δὲ **ἀντὶ** τούτων ἕτοιμος ἦν διδόναι τοῦτο ὅ τι βούλοιτο αὐτός. [2] Γίλλος δὲ αἱρέεται κάτοδόν οἱ **ἐς** Τάραντα γενέσθαι, προαπηγησάμενος τὴν συμφορήν· ἵνα δὲ μὴ συνταράξῃ τὴν Ἑλλάδα, ἢν **δι᾽** αὐτὸν στόλος μέγας πλέῃ **ἐπὶ** τὴν Ἰταλίην, Κνιδίους μούνους ἀποχρᾶν οἱ ἔφη τοὺς κατάγοντας γίνεσθαι, δοκέων **ἀπὸ** τούτων ἐόντων τοῖσι Ταραντίνοισι φίλων μάλιστα τὴν κάτοδόν οἱ ἔσεσθαι. [3] Δαρεῖος δὲ ὑποδεξάμενος ἐπετέλεε· πέμψας γὰρ ἄγγελον **ἐς** Κνίδον, κατάγειν σφέας ἐκέλευε Γίλλον **ἐς** Τάραντα. πειθόμενοι δὲ Δαρείῳ, Κνίδιοι Ταραντίνους οὐκ ὦν ἔπειθον, βίην δὲ ἀδύνατοι ἦσαν προσφέρειν. [4] ταῦτα μέν νυν οὕτω ἐπρήχθη· οὗτοι δὲ πρῶτοι **ἐκ** τῆς Ἀσίης **ἐς** τὴν Ἑλλάδα ἀπίκοντο Πέρσαι, καὶ οὗτοι **διὰ** τοιόνδε πρῆγμα κατάσκοποι ἐγένοντο.

In this paragraph of similar length there are thirteen prepositions. Because much meaning is created in Greek through the use of case endings on nouns and pronouns, Greek prepositions do not occur as frequently as they do in English. Nonetheless the point to take from the above is that the prepositional phrase is an important building block for creating meaning in Greek and in English. Learning to recognize prepositions and their objects and understanding how to translate them are key skills to acquire.

**Practice Picking out Prepositions.** From this excerpt of *Moby Dick,* practice picking out the prepositions and their objects. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Circumambulate the city of a dreamy Sabbath afternoon. Go from Corlears Hook to Coenties Slip, and from thence, by Whitehall, northward. What do you see?—Posted like silent sentinels all around the town, stand thousands upon thousands of mortal men fixed in ocean reveries. Some leaning against the spiles; some seated upon the pier-heads; some looking over the bulwarks of ships from China; some high aloft in the rigging, as if striving to get a still better seaward peep. But these are all landsmen; of week days pent up in lath and plaster—tied to counters, nailed to benches, clinched to desks. How then is this? Are the green fields gone? What do they here?

In doing the above exercise, aim for mastery—understand what a preposition and its object are and be able to pick out prepositions and objects from any sentence written in English. Since the meaning and function of English and Greek prepositions are the same, you will be able to transfer your knowledge of the preposition in English to your understanding of it in Greek.

# **Greek Prepositions**

Remember that in Greek and in English prepositions must take an object. If there is no object, then the word is not a preposition. In Greek the object may be in the accusative (acc.), genitive (gen.), or dative (dat.) cases, whose endings you will learn shortly. Some prepositions take only one case as their object. **ἐκ** only takes an object in the genitive case:


Other prepositions take objects in all three cases, such as **ἀμφί**:


Below is a list of the most frequently occurring prepositions. Memorize them. You will encounter them frequently in the rest of this book and they are not glossed. Note that in some cases the definitions are simplified. See the glossary for more complete ones.





### **Word Order**

As in English, in Greek the object of a preposition typically comes right after it, **ἐν** τῇ ὁδῷ *in the road*. The object, τῇ ὁδῷ, follows the preposition **ἐν**. At times words intervene between the preposition and its object, **διὰ** Διὸς πῦρ *through the fire of Zeus*. The noun **Διός**, *of Zeus*, possesses πῦρ *fire* and comes between the preposition **διά** *through* and its object πῦρ *fire*. Note that for the preposition **εἵνεκα** or **ἕνεκα** typical word order is object followed by **εἵνεκα** or **ἕνεκα**, as noted above.

## **Anastrophe of the Disyllabic Preposition**

In the majority of instances the object follows the preposition. In some instances the order is reversed and a preposition of two syllables follows the object, as in this example, κάλλ*ους* **πέρι** *concerning beauty*. Note that when anastrophe occurs, the accent shifts from the ultima to the penult, **περί** to **πέρι**.

# **Prepositions and Motion**

For the genitive, dative, and accusative cases, a general rule of motion applies in many instances.

The **rules of motion** are three and they are only generally true. In each the preposition is bolded and its object is underlined.

A preposition with its object in the genitive case can express **motion away from**:

ἔρχονται **ἀπὸ** τῆς γῆς *they go from the land.* 

A preposition with its object in the dative case can express **place where**:

ἵστημι **ἐν** τῇ ὁδῷ *I stand in the road.* 

A preposition with its object in the accusative case can express **motion towards** or **against**:

ἐρχόμεθα **εἰς** τὴν γῆν *we go to the land.* 

In poetry the preposition may be omitted altogether. When you encounter prepositional phrases in the wild, keep in mind the general **rule of motion**.

**Practice Identifying Prepositions.** From this excerpt of Herodotos' *Historie*s (Ι.215) practice picking out the prepositions **ἐν**, **ἐς**, and **περί**. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Μασσαγέται δὲ ἐσθῆτά τε ὁμοίην τῇ Σκυθικῇ φορέουσι καὶ δίαιταν ἔχουσι, ἱππόται δὲ εἰσὶ καὶ ἄνιπποι—ἀμφοτέρων γὰρ μετέχουσι καὶ τοξόται τε καὶ αἰχμοφόροι, σαγάρις νομίζοντες ἔχειν. χρυσῷ δὲ καὶ χαλκῷ τὰ πάντα χρέωνται. ὅσα μὲν γὰρ ἐς αἰχμὰς καὶ ἄρδις καὶ σαγάρις, χαλκῷ τὰ πάντα χρέωνται. ὅσα δὲ περὶ κεφαλὴν καὶ ζωστῆρας καὶ μασχαλιστῆρας, χρυσῷ κοσμέονται. [2] ὣς δ᾽ αὕτως τῶν ἵππων τὰ μὲν περὶ τὰ στέρνα χαλκέους θώρηκας περιβάλλουσι, τὰ δὲ περὶ τοὺς χαλινοὺς καὶ στόμια καὶ φάλαρα χρυσῷ. σιδήρῳ δὲ οὐδ᾽ ἀργύρῳ χρέωνται οὐδέν· οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδέ σφι ἐστὶ ἐν τῇ χωρῇ. ὁ δὲ χρυσὸς καὶ ὁ χαλκὸς ἄπλετος.

#### **Translation**

The Massagetai dress similarly to the Skythians and have a similar way of life. They fight from horses and on foot, for they make use of both. They shoot bows and throw spears and customarily carry the battle-ax. They make abundant use of gold and bronze. They use bronze for the tips of arrows and spears and for their ax-heads. For adorning their heads and belts and straps, they use gold. For their tack, they take the same approach. They surround their horses' chests with breastplates made of bronze. They adorn with gold the reins, bits, and cheek-plates. They do not use iron or silver because their land has none, though gold and bronze are plentiful.

**Practice Choosing the Preposition.** In this translation of an excerpt of Herodotos' *Historie*s, for the bolded words choose the Greek preposition that best translates them. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

**Concerning** customs all people think this way and it is possible to prove it is so by many examples and also **in** the following way. **During** his rule Dareios called some Greeks who were present and asked them **at** what price they would be willing to eat their dead fathers. They replied that they would do this **at** no price. **After** this Dareios called the Kallatians from India who eat their dead and while the Greeks watched and understood what was said **through**  an interpreter, asked **at** what price they would agree to burn with fire their dead fathers. They yelled loudly and bid him to watch his tongue. So it is with customs and I think Pindar's poem correctly says that custom is the king of everything.

**Practice Translating Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Adverbs.** Translate the paragraph below, paying attention to how the conjunctions, adverbs, and prepositions function. Often there is not an authentic connection between how ancient Greek expresses the meaning of a sentence and how English does. The main takeaway from exercises like these is a greater understanding of how each part of speech functions, not a greater understanding of ancient Greek idiom. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

#### **Paragraph I (from** *Moby Dick***)**

It was a humorously perilous business for both of us. **πρὶν γὰρ** we proceed further, it must be said **ὅτι** the monkey-rope was fast **ἐπὶ** both ends; fast to Queequeg's broad canvas belt, and fast to my narrow leather one. **ὥστε** for better or for worse, we two, **εἰς νῦν**, were wedded; and should poor Queequeg sink to rise no more, **ἔπειτα καὶ** usage **καὶ** honor demanded, **ὅτι** instead of cutting the cord, it should drag me down in his wake. **οὕτως**, **ἔπειτα**, an elongated Siamese ligature united us. Queequeg was my own inseparable twin brother; nor could I any way get rid of the dangerous liabilities which the hempen bond entailed.

**οὕτως** strongly and metaphysically did I conceive of my situation **τότε**, **ὅτι μέχρι** earnestly watching his motions, I seemed distinctly to perceive **ὅτι** my own individuality was **νῦν** merged in a joint stock company of two; **ὅτι** my free will had received a mortal wound; **καὶ ὅτι** another's mistake **ἢ** misfortune might plunge innocent me **εἰς** unmerited disaster and death.

#### **Paragraph II (translation from Lucian's** *A True Story***)**

Athletes **καὶ** those seeking physical fitness pay attention to health **καὶ** exercise. They **καὶ** contend **ὅτι** well-timed relaxation is a vital part of training. Students **καὶ** I think profit **ἐκ** rest **μετὰ** reading serious works and **οὖν** return **εἰς** their studies invigorated. This rest works best **εἰ** they spend time **σὺν** books which provide contemplation **καὶ** inspiration **ἀλλὰ καὶ** wit, charm, **καὶ** attraction, just the sort of restful thought I think this work provides. I note **οὐ** only the novelty of the content and the charm of a compelling story **ἀλλὰ καὶ** the witty allusions **πρὸς** the ancient classics, filled with legends and monsters, written **ὑπὸ** poets, historians, and philosophers.

### **Prefixes**

Many verbs have prefixes added to them. The prefix typically changes the verb's meaning, doing so sometimes in slight, and other times in significant, ways. Note the following verbs and their meanings:

**\*δίδωμι** *give*; **δίκην δίδωμι** *I pay the penalty*; **δίδωμι χάριν** *I give thanks* **ἐκδίδωμι** *give up, surrender, give out* (of one's house), give (in marriage) **προδίδωμι** *betray, abandon, give up* (to an enemy)

**\*εἰμί** *be, be possible* **\*πάρειμι** *be near, be present*; (imper.) *be possible*

**\*εἶμι** *come, go* \***πάρειμι** *go in, enter, pass by*

**\*ἵστημι** *stand* **ἀνίστημι** *make stand up, wake, break up* (an assembly) **\*καθίστημι** *appoint, establish, put into a state*; (intrans.) *be established, be appointed*

**\*τίθημι** *put, place* **προτίθημι** *place before, propose, prefer*

**\*φερω** *bring, bear, carry* **προσφέρω** *bring to, apply to*


# **Object of Prefix**

A preposition always has an object. The prefix does not always but may at times also take an object as in these examples:

βίαν **προσ**φέρω αὐτῷ, *I apply force to him;*

**βίαν** is the object of **φέρω** and **αὐτῷ** is the object of the prefix **προς-**;

and

τῆς δὲ γῆς **ἀπ**έρχονται, *they depart the land.* 

**γῆς** is the object of the prefix **ἀπο-**.

In each example above, the noun serves as the object of the prefix. In this next example, note that Herodotos uses the same prefix and preposition, one reinforcing the meaning of the other. The prefix and preposition are in bold. The preposition's object is underlined.

**περὶ** τὰ στέρνα χαλκέους θώρηκας **περι**βάλλουσι *They surround their chests with breastplates made of bronze.*

The preposition **περί** and its meaning around are reinforced by the prefix **περι-**. In this next example there is a similar repetition of the preposition and prefix.

**ἐν** τῇ ὁδῷ τέλματι βαθεῖ **ἐν**τυγχάνω. *Ι stumble upon a deep puddle in the road.* 

In this sentence the preposition **ἐν** and the prefix **ἐν-** do not work together, reinforcing each other as **περί** and **περι-** do above. Rather the noun **τέλματι** is the object of the prefix **ἐν-** and the prepositional phrase **ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ** locates **τέλματι βαθεῖ** *the deep puddle*.

# **Elision**

A final short vowel at the end of a word or a prefix may be elided (eliminated) when the word or verb that follows starts with a vowel or diphthong. When elision occurs between two words, the missing short vowel is marked by an apostrophe. When elision occurs between a prefix and its verb, the short vowel of the prefix is eliminated. Note these instances of elision:


When the consonant directly before the elided vowel is kappa, pi, or tau—**κ, π,**  or **τ**—and is followed by a word with a rough breathing, the consonant changes to the corresponding aspirate: **κ** becomes **χ; π** becomes **φ;** and **τ** becomes **θ.** 

**ἐπὶ ᾧ** becomes **ἐφ᾽ ᾧ. κατα ἵστημι** becomes **καθίστημι.**

In addition to the elision of short vowels, final -**αι** and -**οι** are occasionally elided:

**εἶναι ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ** becomes **εἶν' ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ. οἴμοι ὡς ἀθυμέω** becomes **οἴμ' ὡς ἀθυμέω.**

Consider contractions that occur in English, such as **can't** or **watcha gonna do**, noting the different ways that words combine.

**Module 8 Practice Reading Aloud.** Practice reading this excerpt from Euripides' *Alkestis*. Read the excerpt a few times, paying attention to the sound each syllable makes and trying to hear the rhythm of the words.

### **Ἄλκηστις**

ἄγει μ' ἄγει τις· ἄγει μέ τις (οὐχ

260 ὁρᾷς;) νεκύων ἐς αὐλάν,

ὑπ' ὀφρύσι κυαναυγέσι βλέπων, πτερωτὸς Ἅιδας. τί ῥέξεις; ἄφες. οἵαν ὁδὸν ἁ δειλαιοτάτα προβαίνω.

#### **Ἄδμητος**


265 καὶ παισίν, οἷς δὴ πένθος ἐν κοινῷ τόδε.

#### **Ἄλκηστις**


#### **Ἄδμητος**

οἴμοι· τόδ' ἔπος λυπρὸν ἀκούειν καὶ παντὸς ἐμοὶ θανάτου μεῖζον. 275 μὴ πρός <σε> θεῶν τλῇς με προδοῦναι, μὴ πρὸς παίδων οὓς ὀρφανιεῖς, ἀλλ' ἄνα, τόλμα. σοῦ γὰρ φθιμένης οὐκέτ' ἂν εἴην· ἐν σοὶ δ' ἐσμὲν καὶ ζῆν καὶ μή· σὴν γὰρ φιλίαν σεβόμεσθα.

#### **Verse Translation**

#### **Alkestis**

Someone pulls and pulls me—don't you see?— Pulls me nigh where dwell the dead, and Stares with darkened brow, winged Hades.

What will you do? Let me go. What journey I'm to make, a soul most sorrowful.

#### **Admetos**

One sad to friends but most of all to me And our poor progeny who share this grief.

#### **Alkestis**

Let me down, down, now. On my back, I cannot stand. Here is Hades. Black of night creeps Up against mine eyes. Children, children, mother dies, Yours no longer, mother dies. Children, look, enjoy the rays of day.

#### **Admetos**

Alas your words pain my ear,

Are worse than any death to me.

By gods, do not forsake me, dear,

By ours, those whom you leave now orphaned.

But up, arise.

Without you here I live no more.

In you there rests my life and death.

I honor you, my love.

To hear me read, followed by Stefan Hagel's expert reading with a pitch accent, follow the link below:

Alkestis 259–279. 1

<sup>1</sup> https://loom.com/share/80cb5fca014942a990485c0764381a1a.

## **Etymology Corner VIII by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 4

**Accents, Modules 3, 5, 11.** A syllable is the smallest spoken chunk of a word, and comes from the Greek prefix **συν-** *together*, *with* and verb **λαμβάνειν** *to take*, (just like in **synchronize**, *to make two times* (χρόνοι) *the same*, or in **sympathy**, *to feel* (πάθος *experience, suffering, emotion*) *with* someone.

When accenting, there are three syllables we care about. There is the final one, the **ultima**, from the Latin **ultimus** *last*, *final* (anything that is **the ultimate** had best be the final one!). There's the one that is almost or nearly the final, the **penultimate**, from the Latin **paene** *almost* and **ultimus** *last, final* (a **peninsula** is *nearly* an *island,* from the Latin **insula**, *island* because a peninsula has water on three sides). The third from the last is the **ante-** *before* the **pen-** *almost* **ult** *final syllable*, the **antepenult**, (just as the Antebellum South, from Latin **ante-** *before* and **bellum** *war*, was the South *before* the *war* and just as in poker the **ante** comes *before* the bets).

The last datum we need to add is whether the **accent** is **persistent**, meaning it tries to stay over the same syllable, (**per**, *thoroughly*, **sistere**, *to stand firm*, like in insist) or **recessive**, meaning it tries to fall back towards the antepenult (**re**, *again*, like redo, and **cess** from Latin **cedere**, meaning to *yield* or *move back*, like in cede or recession).

**What to Study and Do 8.** Before moving on to the next module make sure that you have learned the definition and the function of prepositions, prepositional phrases, and prefixes. Remember that the English and Greek prepositions have the same function. If you understand the English preposition, you understand the Greek. As you work through this text, if you find yourself uncertain about the definition and function of the preposition, redo the exercises in this module and check your answers with the Answer Key.

**Learning Tip 8: Work through Difficulties.** Break seemingly intractable problems into tractable sub-problems. Break down each problem into its knowable and unknowable parts. Figure out what you do and do not know. Expose and examine your assumptions. Make guesses without being afraid of being wrong, recognizing that mistakes are necessary for growth and learning. Discover your errors quickly. Ask for assistance.

# Module 9 **The Verb and** μι-**Verbs** εἰμί, δίδωμι, τίθημι

# **The Verb**

In Greek and in English, verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs are words that represent actions (**throw**) and states of being (**be** or **exist**). They differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English does not. The Greek verb **(ῥῆμα)** in its finite form has an **ending** that indicates what **person** and **number** the **subject** is. The Greek infinitive has an ending that indicates that it is unmarked for **person** and **number**.

In this module you will see how the Greek verb functions with three **μι-verbs: εἰμί, δίδωμι,** and **τίθημι**.

### Finite Verbs

The finite verbs **I run** or **we run** have a person **I** or **we** and a number, singular **I** or plural **we**. Note that the combination of a verb with its subject forms a **clause**.

### Infinitives

Infinitives are not marked for person or number. In English the infinitive is preceded by **to**. **To run**, **to go**, **to walk**, **to carry**, **to mark**, and **to sing** are all infinitives and are all unmarked for person and for number.

### Intransitive and Transitive Verbs

Verbs are either **intransitive** or **transitive**. **Intransitive verbs** do not take a **direct object**. **εἰμί** *I am* is an **intransitive verb**. **Transitive verbs** take a direct object. **ὁράω** *I see* is a transitive verb. It takes a direct object. In the sentence, **ὁράω αὐτόν** *I see him*, **αὐτόν** is the direct object of the transitive verb **ὁράω**.

Some verbs can be intransitive or transitive depending upon their use in context. For example the English verb **walk** is intransitive in the sentence, **I walk to the store**. And it is transitive in the sentence **I walk my dog to the**  **store**. **Dog** functions as the direct object of **walk**. Consider the verb **smell**. In the sentence, **the flower smells good**, the verb **smell** is intransitive and describes a quality of the flower's aromatic existence. In the sentence **I smell the sauteeing onions and garlic**, the verb **smell** is transitive and represents an action that **I** perform. **Onions** and **garlic** function as the direct objects of **smell**. Module 30 has practice translating exercises with the μι-verb **ἵστημι,** which can be both intransitive and transitive.

### Linking Verbs

Linking verbs connect two items in a sentence. The verb **to be** is the most common linking verb. In the sentence **she is a doctor**, the verb **is** connects the subject **she** and the predicate nominative **doctor**. In the sentence **he is hungry**, the verb **is** connects the subject **he** and the predicate adjective **hungry**. Some common linking verbs in English are these: **appear, become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste,** and **turn.** Some common linking verbs in Greek are these: **γίγνομαι** *be, be born*; **δοκέω** *seem*; **εἰμί** *be*; **κεῖμαι** *lie, remain*; and **φαίνω** *seem***.** The two items connected by the linking verb are in the same case, which in Greek is typically nominative. In the examples below, the linking verbs are bolded and the words in the same case are underlined.


### Verb Tense

English and Greek have a variety of verb tenses which express time. Tense refers to the times of the **past, present**, and **future**. Each **tense** indicates when the action of the verb occurs. The present tense indicates action that is currently happening. The future tense refers to an event that will happen at some later point. The past tense refers to actions that have already occurred.

### Tense-Aspect

Time (tense) refers to the past, present, and future. Aspect refers to whether an action is incomplete (imperfective), completed (perfective), or in a state (stative). The present tense stem, which is used to form the present and imperfect tenses, communicates an incomplete action. The beginnings and ends of the action are undefined. Thus the tense-aspect for the present is present ongoing or repeated, and the tense-aspect for the imperfect is past ongoing or repeated (imperfective). The aorist tense stem communicates a completed action as a single whole. The boundaries of the action's beginning and end define the action as completed (perfective). The tense-aspect of the perfect and future perfect (not covered in this text due to its rarity) have a completed state that results from a previous completed action or have a completed state (stative) whose effects are still relevant. The future tense stems have a temporal value but no aspect, showing no distinction between the imperfective (incomplete) and perfective (completed) aspect (*CGCG* 33.4–6).

**Incomplete Aspect.** In the sentences,

she picks flowers,

and

she was picking flowers,

the aspect is called **incomplete** because the beginning and end of the action are undefined.

**Completed Aspect.** In the sentence,

she picked flowers,

the aspect of **picked** is **completed** because the boundaries of the beginning and end of the action are defined.

**Stative Aspect.** In the sentence,

he is amazed,

the aspect of **is amazed** is **stative** because the action of the verb results in the subject's being in a certain state, here amazement.

In sum the aspects are three: incomplete, completed, or stative. In English, aspect depends upon verb tense and context. In Greek, verb tense is a clearer determinant of aspect, though context still matters.

### Verb Mood

English has these moods: **the conditional, imperative, indicative, infinitive**, and **subjunctive**.

**The conditional mood** uses the helping verbs **could, might, should, would**. For the conditional mood, the proposition **(could, might, should, would)** depends on a condition **(if).** In this sentence,

If I show you my weak side, would you take me home?,

upon the successful conclusion of the conditional **if**, the proposition may be fulfilled.

**The imperative mood** gives someone a command,

So kick back, dig, while we do it.

Here the mood of the verb **kick** gives a command that may or may not be fulfilled.

The **indicative** is the mood of fact. This mood makes declarations that are presented as true. In this sentence,

Generals are gathered in their masses,

we are to believe that the generals have crowded together.

The **infinitive** is unmarked for person and number. Ιt is classified as a verbal noun and is best understood by thinking of its function as completing or enhancing the meaning of adjectives, clauses, nouns, and verbs. This is why the infinitive is referred to as a complement. Sometimes classified as a mood, the infinitive is potential in meaning, **ἐν δυνάμει,** because its action may or may not be realized. In this phrase,

standing in line to see the show tonight,

there is no guarantee that the person standing in line will get **to see** the show.

**The subjunctive mood** communicates ideas that are contrafactual, hypothetical, or uncertain.

I wish you were here. I ask that he be still a moment and this mystery explore. Oi, where be the bar, John?

**Be, explore,** and **were** are all subjunctives. In the first sentence the **were** is contrafactual, indicating that the subject **I** is in fact not **here**. Contrast this contrafactual sentence with the factual one: **we were two lost souls**. The two **weres** are identical in form but not in function. Context enables us to understand the difference in meaning between them. **Be** and **explore** both refer to events in the future that may or may not be fulfilled. In the third sentence the **be** expresses uncertainty as to where the bar be.

Greek also has five moods: **imperative** (command); **indicative** (factual statements usually); **infinitive** (potential); **optative** (factual or hypothetical); and **subjunctive** (hypothetical). English often uses helping verbs such as **may**, **might**, **should** to express hypothetical or uncertain situations that Greek expresses through a verb's mood.

### Verb Voice

English has two voices: **active**, (she throws) and **passive**, (she is thrown). Greek has three voices: **active**, **middle**, and **passive**.

**Active Voice.** In the active voice the subjects perform the verb's action. In the sentence

she throws,

**she** performs the act of throwing and so **throws** is active voice.

**Passive Voice.** In passive voice the action of the verb is performed upon the subject. In the sentence,

she is thrown, the act of throwing is performed upon the subject **she**. The verb **is thrown** is passive voice.

**Middle Voice.** Middle voice expresses actions the subjects perform upon themselves or actions that the subjects are personally interested in. Greek uses the middle voice to translate the English sentence,

she washes herself, **λούεται**.

Greek also uses the middle voice to translate the sentence,

she has her daughters educated**, παιδεύεται** τὰς θυγάτερας.

In sum the voices are three. The Greek active and passive voices function just as they do in English. English does not have a middle voice. The Greek middle voice, covered in more detail in Module 19, often has a reflexive meaning: I see **myself**; I wash **my** hands. Typically you will translate it via the English active voice.

### Principal Parts

English and Greek verbs have **principal parts**. In English the principal parts are these: **go, went, gone, going**. Speakers of English use these principal parts to compose the variety of tenses, moods, and voices the English verb enjoys.

Greek verbs have these **six principal parts:**



From these six principal parts are formed all the various tenses, moods, and voices the Greek verb enjoys.

**Practice with Verbs in English.** Read (or sing) this song by Little Richard and give as much information as you can about each verb. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

> [Intro] La, la, la da da da da da

[Verse 1] I hope that I should live to see When every man should know he's free Prayers and suffrage from the past All make our heart to be this sad

[Chorus] I got my duty rock and roll Now everybody, everybody, everybody's got to be free, y'all

[Refrain] La, la, la da da da da da

[Verse 2] Let's get rid of that old man, hey hey hey hey And bring our government up to date It may seem very hard to do Just open your mind, let love come through

[Chorus] You hear me calling, hear my plea Everybody, everybody, everybody's gotta be free Oh yes!

[Refrain] La, la, la da da da da da

[Verse 3] We did our thing and we paid our dues And let's get rid of these freedom blues It may seem very hard to do Just open your mind, let love come through

[Chorus] I got my duty rock and roll Now everybody, everybody, everybody's got to be free, y'all

[Outro] La, la, la da da da da

The purpose of this exercise is to have you think actively about how the English verb conveys meaning. In doing this exercise reflect on how much you intuitively know about your native language. Also look to transfer this knowledge to your understanding of the Greek verb.

# **The** μι-**Verb** εἰμί

**εἰμί** frequently occurs. In all languages the verb **to be** is used so frequently that its forms resist change and they tend to be highly irregular. The finite forms of verbs indicate person and number. Because the forms of **εἰμί** are unique, it is difficult at first to discern the person and number of each form. When you learn **δίδωμι**, **τίθημι**, and the omega- or **ω-verb**, you will understand clearly how verb endings indicate person and number.

Memorize the below forms of **εἰμί.** Note that each form of the verb contains its own subject. The Greek language does have equivalents for the English pronouns **I, you, he, she, it; we, you, they**. You will learn them in detail in Module 18. Greek often does not state them separately from the verb. Contrast **εἰμί** *I am* with **ἐγὼ εἰμί** *I am.* **εἰμί** without the pronoun **ἐγώ** occurs more frequently. When the ancient Greek pronoun is present, it is often there for emphasis or for contrast or for sound or for some other aesthetic or practical reason.

Memorize **εἰμί** so that you are able to recite and write the forms, going from Greek to English and vice versa. Remember that present refers to time now; that the indicative is used to state facts; and that in active voice the subject performs the verb's action or state of being.

### Present Indicative Active of εἰμί


1. The letter nu in the third person singular and plural is a nu-movable. It may be added to the ending when the following word begins with a vowel or at the end of clauses or verses. Otherwise it is left off.

### Present Infinitive Active of εἰμί

1. All forms but εἶ and εἶναι are enclitic**.** Enclitics are pronounced closely with the word that precedes them. Some common ones are the adverbs **γε, ποθέν, ποι, ποτέ, που, πως,** and **τοι**; the conjunction **τε;** the pronouns **με, μοι, μου, σε, σοι σου, τι,** and **τις;** and the verbs **εἰμί, φημί**. Enclitics sometimes have an accent and sometimes do not. They can also affect the accent of the word that precedes them. How they do is covered in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

**Practice Translating εἰμί.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Lucian's *The Ass*, **ὁ Ὄνος**. Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded and genitive endings are italicized. Also in these sentences, the definite article, which will be learned systematically in Modules 11 and 12, is present in these forms: **τῆς**, **τό**, **τῶν**. Translate each one as *the*. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.



### **Adverbs and Verbs**


### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**



1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

# **The** μι-**Verbs** δίδωμι **and** τίθημι

Though not as numerous as **omega-** or **ω-verbs**, **μι-verbs** occur frequently. **μι-verbs** conjugate differently from **ω-verbs** in some tenses, typically the present, imperfect, aorist, and sometimes the perfect. In conjugating these verb forms, learn which **stem** to combine with which ending. The **stem** is the base of the word to which the ending is joined. Once you have the correct stem and ending, combine them to create the correct form. You may memorize the stems and endings or you may learn how to combine stems and endings so that you can recognize the forms as you encounter them. In the readings that occur in the textbook, use your knowledge of **δίδωμι** *give* and **τίθημι** *put, place* to identify the present indicative active forms of other μι-verbs, including **ἀπόλλυμι** *kill, lose; die*; **δείκνυμι** *show, display*; **ἵημι** *release, hurl, send*; (mid.) *hasten* and **ἵστημι** *place, stand, make stand*.

### **Present Tense Stems**

Use the long vowel grade stem for the singular (I, you, he, she, it) and the short vowel grade for the plural (we, you, they). Note that the stems differ even within the same tense, mood, and voice.


**Present Tense Endings**

Add to the correct tense stem.

**Primary Active** (use for the present tense)

**τιθη- τιθε-**


**Present Infinitive Active**


### Present Indicative Active of δίδωμι


### Present Infinitive Active of δίδωμι

short διδόναι *to give* unmarked


### Present Indicative Active of τίθημι.

### Present Infinitive Active of τίθημι


**Readers of Euripides of Athens, Εὐριπίδης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c.480–406 BCE.** Readers of Euripides tend to view him in polarized ways. There are those who think that he criticized traditional religion and shocked contemporaries by representing mythical figures as everyday, unheroic people or even as abnormal or neurotic personalities. Others view him as conventionally religious. He is considered by some a misogynist because of his unsparing analysis of feminine passion. Others view him as highly sympathetic to the plight of women. Euripides' enormous range spans these contradictory tendencies: he is both a rationalist and a romantic; he both criticizes the traditional gods and celebrates religion; some of his plays are more comic than tragic with happy endings, while others are bitter tragedies. He incorporates the new intellectual and scientific movements into his works but also conveys the irresistible power of the irrational.In modern times, Euripides has come to be increasingly appreciated for his intellectual subtlety, bold and original dramatic power, brilliant psychological insight, and ability to elicit unexpected symbolic meaning from ancient myth and cult.

**Practice Translating δίδωμι.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Euripides' *Medea* (**Μήδεια**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded, dative endings are highlighted, and accusative endings are underlined. Also in the sentences the definite article, which will be learned systematically in Modules 11 and 12, is present in these forms: **ἡ**, **τῇ**, **τό**, **τόν**. Translate each one as *the*. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.



### **Verbs**

**\*δίδωμι** *give*; **δίκην δίδωμι** *I pay the penalty*; **δίδωμι χάριν** *I give thanks* **ἐκδίδωμι** *give up, surrender, give out* (of one's house), *give* (in marriage) **προδίδωμι** *betray, abandon, give up* (to an enemy)

### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**



1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Translating τίθημι.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Euripides' *Alkestis*, (**Ἄλκηστις**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Also in the sentences the definite article, which will be learned systematically in Modules 11 and 12, is present in this form: **τούς**. Translate it as *the*. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.



### **Adverbs and Verbs**


### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**



1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object.

ἐγὼ μὲν ἔρομαι εἰ ἔνδον ἐστέ.

δίκην αὐτῇ καὶ αὐτῷ δίδως.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

**Module 9 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Verbs**

**δίδωμι** *give; allow* 'x' in dat. or acc. + inf., **ἐμὲ (έμοί) εὐτυχέειν δίδως** *you allow me to prosper*

**εἰμί** *be, be possible* **ἵημι** *release, hurl, send*; (mid.) *hasten* **πάρειμι** *be near, be present*; (imper.) *be possible* **φημί** *say, affirm, assert*

# **Etymology Corner IX by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 5

**Enclitics, Postpositives, Proclitics, Module 4.** Let's talk about three additional technical words. **Enclitics** are pronounced closely with the word that precedes them and sometimes even affect the accent of that word. The etymology of enclitic is expressed in lexical entries like this: English **enclitic** < Latin **encliticus**, < Greek **ἐγκλιτικός**, < **ἐν** *on* + **κλίνειν** *to lean*, where the symbol **<** means *is derived from*). Think of **enclitics** as *leaning* (**κλίνειν** *to lean***)** *on* (**ἐν** *in, on, at*) the word preceding them (like how a **recliner** is a chair you *lean back* on, from Latin **re** *back* and **clinare** *to lean*)—a rare instance of Latin and Greek using the same root for a technical term. **Proclitics** modify the word coming next. Think of them as *leaning forward* from **προ-** *before, in front of* and **κλίνειν** *to lean.* Some words can't come first in a sentence, so they are *positioned after* the first element of the sentence. The word **postpositive** is built from the Latin prefix **post-** *after* and **positus** *placed.* The word **postpone** from Latin **post** *after* and **ponere** *to place* is built from the same Latin words as **postpositive** is.

**What to Study and Do 9.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have memorized the high frequency verbs **εἰμί, δίδωμι,** and **τίθημι** so that you can write out from memory the verb forms of the present indicative and infinitive active of each. In order to remember these verbs over the long term, review them a few times each week. When reviewing, make sure that you can write them out from memory without looking at the answers.

**Learning Tip 9: Be Persistent.** Learning is innate and fundamental to our existence. Learning requires us to adapt to the wide variety of environments we experience. Learning a different language, or a yoga pose, or any new thing, requires you to adapt to new ways of knowing. Persistence in adapting results in your assimilating new knowledge. Once you have assimilated it, this new knowledge becomes a part of you and your understanding of the world.

# Module 10 **The Verbs** ἔχω**,** ποιέω**,** ἔρχομαι**,**  φημί

# **The Verb**

In Greek and in English, verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs are words that represent actions (**throw**) and states of being (**be** or **exist**). They differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English does not. The Greek verb (**ῥῆμα**) in its finite form has an **ending** that indicates what **person** and **number** the **subject** is. The Greek infinitive has an ending that indicates that it is unmarked for **person** and **number**.

In this module you will see how endings create meaning in the **omega-** or **ω-verb ἔχω**, the contract **ω-verb ποιέω**, the deponent **ω-verb ἔρχομαι**, and the **μι-verb φημί**.

# **Present Tense Stems**

To obtain the present tense stem, remove the ending –**ω** or **–ομαι**. What remains is the present tense stem, the base of the word the ending is joined to. To this stem, add the present tense endings.

# **Present Tense Endings**

Add to the correct tense stem.

**Primary Active** (use for the present and future active tense)


#### **Present Infinitive Active**


# **The** ω-**Verb** ἔχω

**ἔχω** is referred to as an **ω-verb** because it ends in omega in the first person singular, present indicative active of the first principal part. **ω-verbs** differ from **μι-verbs** in stems and in endings in some tenses. All **ω-verbs** form their present indicative active just as **ἔχω** does. In the readings that follow, use your knowledge of **ἔχω** to recognize and translate the forms of other **ω-verbs**.

### Present Indicative Active of ἔχω


### Present Infinitive Active of ἔχω


**Practice Translating ἔχω.** Translate the sentences below, adapted from a variety of ancient Greek authors. Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded, dative endings are highlighted, and accusative endings are underlined. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.




### **Verbs**


### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**



1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

# **The Contract** ω**-Verb** ποιέω

**ποιέω** is referred to as a contract **ω-verb** because its stem ends in epsilon in the first person singular, present indicative active of the first principal part. When the stem of principal part I or II ends in epsilon, the epsilon may contract with the endings in accordance with the chart below. In the readings that follow, use your knowledge of **ποιέω** to recognize and translate the forms of other epsilon contract ω-verbs. A second type of contract verb with its stem ending in alpha is introduced in Modules 17 and 19. Module 24 presents contract verbs in alpha, epsilon, and omega.


### Present Indicative Active of ποιέω



### Present Infinitive Active of ποιέω



**Practice Translating ποιέω.** Translate the sentences below, adapted from a variety of ancient Greek authors. Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Also in the sentences the definite article, which will be learned systematically in Modules 11 and 12, is present in these forms: **ὁ, τάς, τήν, τῆς, τό, τοῖς, τοῦ**. Translate each one as *the*. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.



#### **Verbs**

**ἀναγκάζω** *force, compel* **κοιμᾶσθαι** *go to sleep* **ἀπαιθριάζω** *clear away* **ὀφείλω** *owe; be obliged to* + inf. **ἄχθομαι** *be annoyed, vexed, grieved* **\*ποιέω, ποιήσω** *do, make, cause* **\*βούλομαι** *want, prefer; wish, be willing*  **συννέφω** *collect clouds*

**\*θέλω** *wish, be willing*

#### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**



1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

# **The Deponent Verb** ἔρχομαι

Deponent verbs are similar to other verbs except that they do not have active forms. Rather they have middle and passive forms that have active meanings. All deponent **ω-verbs** form their present indicative just as **ἔρχομαι** does. In the readings that follow, use your knowledge of **ἔρχομαι** to recognize and translate the forms of other deponent **ω-verbs**.

### **Present Tense Stems**

To obtain the present tense stem, remove the ending **-ομαι**. What remains, **ἔρχ-**, is the present tense stem.

### **Present Tense Endings**

**Primary Middle and Passive Endings (with active meaning)**. Add these endings to the correct tense stem.


### **Present Infinitive**


Remember that deponent verbs are active in meaning and middle and passive in form.

### Present Indicative of ἔρχομαι


### Present Infinitive of ἔρχομαι

ἔρχεσθαι *to go* unmarked

# **Historical Present**

The present tense in Greek can be used when writing about past events. In these situations, it is referred to as a historic, or storytelling, present. The reason why authors switch to the present tense when writing about the past varies. Some possibilities include emphasis, vividness, and stating current or general truths.

**Practice Translating ἔρχομαι.** Translate the sentences below, adapted from a variety of ancient Greek authors. Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Also in the sentences the definite article, which will be learned systematically in Modules 11 and 12, is present in these forms: **τά, τῇ, τήν, τῆς, τό**. Translate each one as *the*. As you translate, consider the frequent use of the historical present in Greek. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.



### **Adverbs and Verbs**



#### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

# **The** μι-**Verb** φημί

Though not as numerous as **omega-** or **ω-verbs**, **μι-verbs** occur frequently. **μι-verbs** conjugate differently from **ω-verbs** in some tenses, typically the present, imperfect, aorist, and sometimes the perfect. In conjugating these verb forms, learn which **stem** to combine with which ending. The **stem** is the base of the word to which the ending is joined. Once you have the correct stem and ending, combine them to create the correct form. You may memorize the stems and endings or you may learn how to combine stems and endings so that you can recognize the forms as you encounter them.

### **Present Tense Stems**

Use the long vowel grade stem for the singular (I, you, he, she, it) and the short vowel grade for the plural (we, you, they). Note that the stems differ even within the same tense, mood, and voice.


### **Present Tense Endings**

Add to the correct tense stem.

**Primary Active** (use for the present tense)


**Present Infinitive Active**


# **Present Indicative Active of** φημί


### Present Infinitive Active of φημί


**Practice Translating φημί.** Translate the sentences below, adapted from Euripides' *Alkestis* (**Ἄλκηστις**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Also in the sentences the definite article, which will be learned systematically in Modules 11 and 12, is present in this form: **ὁ**. Translate it as *the*. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.



### **Ιnterjection and Verbs**



#### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases give the preposition and the preposition's object.

καὶ φόβος αὐτὸν ἔχει καὶ διὰ ταῦτα φεύγει.

ὁράω γὰρ ὅτι οὐκ ἔρχῃ πρὸς καιρόν.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

## **The Greek Olympics**

Our first official record of the holding of the Olympic games dates to 776 BCE. The Greeks celebrated the Olympics in the city-state of Olympia in honor of Zeus, king of the gods. They held the Olympics once every four years. At first there were two events, the 200- and 400-meter footrace. Soon added were boxing, horse racing (single horse and four-horse chariot), a long distance race, the pankration (boxing, brawling, judo, wrestling), the pentathlon (discus, javelin, long jump, 200-meter sprint, wrestling), and wrestling. Training took place in the nude at the gymnasium (**γυμνός, -ή, -όν** *naked)*. Greeks revered their athletes, composing poems in their honor, dedicating statues to them, and giving them cash and free board.

**Module 10 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

**Verbs**


# **Etymology Corner X by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 6, Parts of Speech

**Adverbs, Module 4.** The first part of speech we have learned is the **adverb** (**ἐπίρρημα**), which can modify modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. The word **modify** *to restrain* or *to restrict* is derived from the Latin verb **facere** (-**ify**, -**fy**) *to make* and the Latin noun **modus** *limit, amount*. When you say you are **mostly** done cleaning your room you are putting a *limit* on the amount of doneness there is. And why is an adverb an adverb? Because it's a word that has been added, from the Latin prefix **ad-** *to,* to the verb (from the Latin **verbum** *word*), just as the Greek word for adverb, **ἐπίρρημα**, is built from the prefix **ἐπι-** *to* and the noun **ῥῆμα** *word, line*, *verb*. In Latin, **verbum** means *word*, and this isn't very useful, except if you take it as THE word. As we will see shortly, a whole sentence in Greek, like in Latin, can be contained in a single verb. This is part of the reason why in grammatical terms **verbum** or **ῥῆμα** means *verb*, the word indicating an **action** or **state of existence** in a sentence. Unlike its Latin parent, the meaning of the English word **verb** maintains a narrow definition. The semantic change of the Latin **verbum** *word* to the English **verb** is called **specialization**. Contrast the **semantic change** of the Greek noun **δίσκος** *discus* which derived into the general English noun **dish** and specific noun **disc**. This type of semantic change is called **generalization**.

**What to Study and Do 10.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have memorized the high frequency verbs **ἔχω**, **ἔρχομαι,** and **φημί** so that you can write out from memory the verb forms of the present indicative and infinitive active of each. In order to remember these ending and verbs for the long term, review them a few times each week. When reviewing, make sure that you can write them out from memory without looking at the answers.

**Learning Tip 10: Move Up Bloom's Pyramid.** Benjamin Bloom edited the first volume of *Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals*. In 2001 the revised version of the taxonomy was published. At the base of the revised pyramid is knowledge. Thus, memorization initiates the first step of learning. Understanding comes next and is achieved through applied practice in novel situations. Memorizing the facts of a language (definitions, endings, and vocabulary) and understanding how to interpret these facts in a variety of different contexts (sentences in a setting) are essential to learning. In learning how to interpret these facts you must also learn key concepts. One main concept you are currently learning is that endings create meaning. The right side of your brain is engaged when you learn new information. As you memorize, process, and understand this new information, it moves from the right half of the brain to the left. Thus learning involves both halves of the brain. If you do not memorize, process, and understand this new information, you will not learn it. Once you have done so you are freed and can move up Bloom's revised taxonomy: knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, evaluation, creativity.

# Module 11 **The Definite Article and Persistent Accent**

# **The Definite Article and Adjectives**

In Greek and in English the definite article, **the**, is an adjective. Greek and English adjectives have the same function, though the Greek adjective has endings and the English adjective does not. Adjectives in both languages are words that describe nouns and pronouns. In the below,

```
a midnight dreary,
```
and

I ponder, **weak** and **weary**,

**a** and **dreary** describe the noun **midnight**; **weak** and **weary** describe the pronoun, **I**. In English, words can change their function and part of speech without changing form. Consider the sentence,

I left my gal and **home**.

In this sentence **home** is a noun. In the sentence,

I go **home**,

**home** is an adverb. In the sentences,

I miss my **home** town,

and

I hit a **home** run,

**home** is an adjective. In Greek, words do not typically change function and part of speech without changing form. In Greek the adjective has endings becauses each adjective agrees in gender, case, and number with the noun it modifies.

## **The Definite Article**

Though in Greek and in English the definite article is an adjective, the functions of the two definite articles have important similarities and differences. Often the Greek definite article, **ὁ, ἡ, τό***,* is best translated with its English equivalent **the**. In this case the function of the article in both languages is the same. In other situations English calls for a translation of the Greek article with a possessive adjective: **my, your, his, her, our, your, their**. As you proceed through this text and Part II of the *21st-Century* series, you will encounter additional differences between the way the Greek and English articles function and the meanings they create.

Memorize the forms of the article. Be sure to memorize letters, breathings, and accents so that you can reproduce from memory each form of the article.


1. Note that the masculine and feminine singular and plural nominative forms, **ὁ, ἡ, οἱ,** and **αἱ** do not have an accent. They are proclitics and pronounced so closely with the word that follows them that they almost form a single word. All of the genitive and dative singular and plural forms have a circumflex accent. The remaining nominative and accusative forms have an acute accent.

Remember that the **article** is an **adjective**. In Greek and in English **adjectives** are words that describe nouns. In Greek, adjectives agree with the nouns that they modify in gender, number, and case. In translating Greek, the ability to see the relationship between an adjective and the noun it modifies is one that you will use in every sentence you translate. Consequently, understanding how the adjective relates to the noun it modifies is essential to your learning the language. The article is the most commonly occurring adjective in ancient Greek. It is also very versatile. In the next module, we will see how it affects meaning in three common instances.

### **Persistent Accent**

Adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, nouns, and pronouns mainly have a persistent accent. Since they are declined, accents on adjectives, nouns, and pronouns can change nature—acute, grave, circumflex—and position—antepenult, penult, ultima. When presented with any noun or pronoun in a lexicon, the nominative case of the noun or pronoun is given first, the genitive case of the noun or pronoun, second, and the article, third:


Remember that the article indicates gender. Persistent accent remains the same accent (acute, grave, circumflex) over the vowel or diphthong it is on, as given by the nominative singular in all forms of the word, unless forced by the possibilities of accent to change in nature (acute, circumflex, grave) or position (antepenult, penult, ultima). If an accent violates one of the possibilities (you cannot have a circumflex on the antepenult), the accent will change in nature (acute, grave, circumflex) before position (antepenult, penult, ultima). The accent of most noun forms is persistent and is learned as part of the vocabulary.

# **Vowel Length**

In the paradigms and accenting practice of this text, macrons mark alpha, iota, and upsilon if long. Short vowels and diphthongs are not marked. In authentic texts and in the Practice Translating of this text, macrons do not occur. Diphthongs are by definition long with this exception: final **-αι** and **-οι** are short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series. **-αι** and **-οι** are final when they appear as the last two letters of a word, λῦσ**αι** but not λύσ**αις**.

# **Review Possibilities of Accent**

Review these four possibilities, rememorizing them if you need to.

### **Acute Accent**


### **Circumflex Accent**


# **Additional Possibilities of Accent**

Memorize these additional possibilities.

### **Acute Accent**


### **Circumflex Accent**


### **Grave Accent**


# **Chart for Possibilities of Accent**

**Acute Grave Circumflex Antepenult** Possible if ultima is short: á-pe-ŭ Never Never **Penult** Possible but not if penult is long and ultima is short: a-pé-u Never Possible if penult is long and ultima is short: a-pê-ŭ **Ultima** Possible if pause follows: a-pe-ú + pause between words Possible if no pause follows: a-pe-ù + no pause between words Possible: a-pe-ũ

**Key: a** stands for antepenult; **pe** for penult; and **u** for ultima.

If, when reading the above, your head is left spinning, do not worry. Most people need to start applying what they are learning before they can begin to enter into understanding. In the below exercises you can learn from the examples. As you need to, go back and reread the possibilities for accent, committing them to memory through applied practice.

**Application of the Chart for Possibilities of Accent in Persistent Accent.** Consider the following examples.


### **Explanations.**


to three and it is not possible to have a circumflex on the antepenult. **δρᾱμάτων:** the accent must change position because the ultima is long.

5. **ἀρετήν, ἀρετάς:** there is no violation of the possibilities and so no change.

**Use these examples and the Chart on Possibilities of Accent to help you complete the persistent accent practice.**

**Practice with Persistent Accent.** The first word in bold gives the persistent accent. Accent the unbolded words. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.


There is additional accent practice in Appendix X.

**Practice Translating**. Translate the sentences below adapted from Euripides' *Alkestis* (**Ἄλκηστις**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.



**Ἀπόλλων: ὁ** Ζ**εὺς** κτείνει παῖδα τὸν ἐμόν, Ἀσκληπιόν, καὶ στέρνοις ἐμβάλλει φλόγα. αὐτὸν γὰρ χολόω ἐπεὶ τοὺς τέκτονας Δί*ου* πυρ*ὸς* κτείνω, τοὺς Κύκλωπας. θητεύειν δὲ ἐμὲ **ὁ** πατ**ὴρ** θνητῷ παρ' ἀνδρὶ τούτ*ων* ἄποινα ἀναγκάζει. ἔρχομαι δὲ τὴν εἰς γαῖαν καὶ βουφορβέω ξένῳ καὶ τὸν σῴζω οἶκον. ὅσι**ὸς** μέν εἰμι καὶ ὁσί*ου* δὲ ἀνδρ*ὸς* τυγχάνω, παιδ*ὸς* Φέρητ*ος*, Ἀδμήτ*ου*· αὐτὸν θανεῖν ῥύομαι καὶ Μοίρᾱς δολόω. αἰνέουσι δὲ ἐμοὶ **αἱ** θε**α**ί τε καὶ λέγουσιν ὅτι **ὁ** δὲ Ἄδμητ**ος** Ἅιδην αυτίκ' ἐκφεύγει καὶ διαλλάσσει ἄλλον τοῖς κάτω νεκρόν. **ὁ** δὲ πάντας δ' ἐλέγχει καὶ διεξέρχεται φίλους, πατέρα τε καὶ μητέρα. **ὁ** δ' οὐχ εὑρίσκει οὐδένα, πλὴν γυναικ*ός*· **ἡ** μήτ**ηρ** αὐτὸν τίκτει ἀλλὰ οὐ ἐθέλει θανεῖν πρὸ αὐτ*οῦ*. **ἡ** μὲν γυν**ὴ** ἐθέλει μηκέτ' εἰσοράειν φάος· **ὁ** δ' αὐτὴν κατ' οἴκους ἐν χερσὶ βαστάζει καὶ **ἡ** δὲ ψυχορραγέει.

### **Adverbs, Prepositions, and Verbs**



**ἐμβάλλω** *throw in, put in; put* 'x' in acc. *into* 'y' in dat.

#### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**



1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentence found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

ὁ Ζεὺς κτείνει παῖδα τὸν ἐμόν, Ἀσκληπιόν, καὶ στέρνοις ἐμβάλλει φλόγα.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

## **Herodotos**

Born in Halikarnessos (Halicarnassus), a gateway between the Greek and Persian worlds, Herodotos began the telling of history. Most biographical information about him is gleaned from his historical work, his *Histories*. In writing it, Herodotos traveled throughout the Mediterranean and the surrounding lands, interviewing sources and looking over data. In helping to create the genre of history, Herodotos focuses on the eighty-two years from 560 to 478 BCE. Outside of this frame he looks back to the origins of the first eight gods, and forward to the events of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 B.C.E.). In crafting his narrative, he makes use of a variety of source material, records events he does and does not believe, and passes judgment where he deems it appropriate, taking pains to establish the truth of what occurred. Where this is not possible, he still preserves what his sources relate. As he worked, he made mistakes and he got things right. His scope is a broad one. As he crafts his narrative, he discusses many other subjects, including the great struggle between the Persian Empire and the Greekspeaking city-states at the dawn of the classical era. These other things include chronology, colonies, customs, deeds, flora and fauna, food, funeral practices, genealogy, geography, great works, lineage, marriage, origins, religion, and sex. Herodotos does not merely list events or tell tales; his history inquires into the causes of events, and casts its net wide to include ethnography and legend as well as military and political history. Though parts of his work read as though Herodotos is a carnival barker, calling his audience to view the strange and incredible world of flying snakes, fish-eating horses, and gold-digging ants, underlying even these fantastic accounts is a reasonable and rational mind, seeking to present what it has gone to great lengths to discover. In presenting his findings, Herodotos weaves a variety of perspectives into his work, creating a complexity that recognizes the difficulties involved in explaining the past. The result is a rich narrative, full of nuance, that offers certainty when it can and uncertainty when it cannot.

**Module 11 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

#### **Adjective and Particle**

**ὁ, ἡ, τό** *the* (proclitic, **ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, αἱ**)

**ὦ** (precedes a noun, marks for the vocative case, often not translated) *oh*

#### **Verbs**

**ἄγω** *do, drive, lead*

**ἀκούω** *hear, hear of or about, listen, heed* + gen. or acc. of thing or gen. of person

**ἄρχω** *rule, command; begin* + gen.

**δύναμαι** *be able, be strong enough* + inf.

**καλέω** *call*

**οἴομαι (οἶμαι)** *think, suppose, believe*

**πράσσω (πράττω)** *do, make; fare;* + **κακῶς** *suffer*

**φέρω** *bring, bear, carry; endure* 

# **Etymology Corner XI by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 7, Parts of Speech

**Conjunctions, Module 5.** The root meaning of the Greek word for conjunction, **σύνδεσμος**, is very close to the root meaning of its Latin counterpart, **conjunction**. We already met **συν**- *together, with*. Its equivalent in Latin is **con-, co-, cum-**. **δεσμός** *bond* binds, chains, or links things together. The Latin **jungere** *to join* also binds, chains, or links. Think about how a **junction** is where two roads or wires meet. The root of **jungere** *to join* is part of a large number of English words like **join** and **yoke** (something that *binds* animals to a plow). The English word **yoga** is derived from the Sanskrit word **yoga** *act of joining*, which is derived from the same Indo-European base as **yoke**. Two words, like **yoga** and **yoke**, which are derived from a common source word are called **cognates**. **Derivatives** or **loan words**, like **postpositive**, are aliens that come from a non-native source. All English words whose etymologies are Greek or Latin are derivatives or loan words. A crude estimation suggests that of the 20,000 most commonly spoken English words about 12,000 are loan words from Greek (2,000) and Latin (10,000).

**What to Study and Do 11.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you can write out the forms of the article from memory and that you understand the concept of adjective and noun agreement. In order to remember the article for the long term, review the forms a few times each week. When reviewing, make sure that you can write them out from memory without looking at the answers. Also memorize the possibilities for accent and make sure that you are able to accent nouns.

**Learning Tip 11: Own Your Learning.** Teachers can assist your learning but cannot bring about your understanding. Good teaching explains information clearly. Good teachers encourage, guide, inspire, and support you, reminding you that mistakes are necessary, that setbacks and barriers are part of the process, and that stress inhibits learning. Ultimately it is you who control your learning and how deeply your thinking goes.

When you memorize vocabulary, repetition is a standard strategy. Some words, such as **ἄνθρωπος** or **βίος**, you will remember based upon your knowledge of the meanings of the Greek loan words **anthropology** and **biology**. Continue to use the memorization strategies that work well for you. For words you need help memorizing, try as an alternative the strategy of linking. This strategy is the same as the one introduced for learning vowel sounds. Applying this strategy well takes concentration, so clear your mind and focus your attention. You need to **SEE** each word. Your senses—hearing, seeing, tasting, touching, smelling—are closely linked with your memory. When you use your imagination to create an image in your mind, make it come alive with your **S**enses. **E**xaggerate the image and **E**nergize it, causing it to act. When you use your imagination in this way, the tedium of memorization is replaced by the excitement of invention. Take the Greek word, **ἀνήρ** *man, husband*. In linking, you associate the English equivalent *man, husband* with the word you need to remember, **ἀνήρ.** First think of an English word or two that sound like the Greek word. To me **ἀνήρ** sounds similar to **on air**. To link the two come up with an interaction between **man** and **on air**, exaggerating the image so as to make it memorable. I imagine a **man** floating **on air** over Greece, in a flying suit made out of the blue and white Greek flag. As he flies, the man is eating fresh-baked bread dipped in tzatziki. On his finger is a huge wedding ring made of gold with many doves etched into it. The wedding ring reminds me that the noun **ἀνήρ** also means *husband*. You can apply this same strategy to English words you have difficulty recalling. I consistently falter in recalling the word **hibiscus**. Recently I linked the **hibiscus** plant with **Biscuit**, the dog belonging to my in-laws. I picture **Bis**cuit sitting in the plant with a big hibiscus flower on his head, wagging his tail **hi**. Since I created this link, I no longer have trouble recalling this word. To watch Nelson Dellis explain the process of linking for remembering vocabulary, follow the links below,

Nelson Dellis, The Linking Method I1

Nelson Dellis, The Linking Method II. 2

<sup>1</sup> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fjk5nBtqM3c.

<sup>2</sup> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z6j2mU8OCsA.

# Module 12 **Substantive Adjectives and the Article**

# **Substantive Adjectives**

**A Substantive Adjective** is created by using an adjective as a substitute for a noun or pronoun. Greek often uses the article and other adjectives to create substantive nouns. English uses it also but not as frequently. Some well-known examples are these:

**The meek** shall inherit the earth. **The Good**, **The Bad**, **The Ugly**. Only **the good** die young. If feces were gold, **the poor** would not have any anuses.

**The Article** may be used in conjunction with an **adverb**, another **noun**, or a **prepositional phrase** to create a **substantive adjective**.

(1) **Article with Adverb:** the feminine plural article **αἱ** joins with the article **τότε** to create the noun **αἱ τότε** *the women of the past*.

(2) **Article with Noun:** the neuter plural article **τά** joins the genitive plural noun **τῶν ἀνθρώπων** to create the noun **τὰ τῶν ἀνθρώπων** *the possessions of people*.

(3) **Article with Prepositional Phrase:** the masculine singular article **ὁ** joins with the prepositional phrase **ἐπὶ τῷ ἵππῳ** to create the noun **ὁ ἐπὶ τῷ ἵππῳ** *the man on the horse*.

**Practice Translating Substantive Adjectives.** Translate the phrases below. After translating each as best as you can, check your answers and be sure to understand why each translates as it does. Once you understand why each phrase translates as it does, read through the exercises at least two more times. Doing so helps your brain process the information as part of your working knowledge of Greek. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.


#### **Vocabulary**


**Practice Making Up Your Own Phrases.** Using the vocabulary above, create your own substantives. Be creative and don't worry about making mistakes, which are necessary for you to have success in any activity you pursue. Own the ancient Greek language and your learning of it. Make it yours.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below, adapted from Euripides' *Iphigeneia at Tauris* (**Ἰφιγένεια ἐν Ταύροις**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.


**Ἰφιγένεια: ὁ** Ταντάλει**ος** εἰς Πῖσαν ἔρχεται καὶ θοαῖς ἵπποις Οἰνομά*ου* γαμέει κόρην. **ἡ** δὲ τίκτει Ἀτρέα. Ἀτρ*έως* δὲ παῖ**ς** Μενέλα**ος** Ἀγαμέμν**ων** τε. καὶ ἐκ αὐτ*οῦ* καὶ τ*ῆς* Τυνδαρεί*ας* γίγνομαι Ἰφιγένει**α**. ἐμὲ δὲ σφάζει Ἑλέν*ης* ἕνεχ' **ὁ** πατ**ὴρ** Ἀρτέμιδι κλειναῖς ἐν πτυχαῖς Αὐλίδ*ος*. ἐνταῦθα γὰρ δὴ χιλί*ων* νη*ῶν* στόλον Ἑλληνικὸν συνάγει Ἀγαμέμν**ων** ἄνα**ξ** καὶ τὸν στέφανον Ἰλί*ου* ἐθέλει λαβεῖν. **ὁ** Ἀτρείδ**ης** τοὺς γάμους Ἑλέν*ης* ἐθέλει μετελθεῖν καὶ Μενελάῳ χάριν φέρειν. **ὁ** τ*ῆς* ἄνα**ξ** στρατηγί*ας*, Ἀγαμέμν**ων**, καίπερ ἐθέλει νῆας ἀφορμίζεσθαι χθον*ός*, οὐκ ἔχει. δειν*ῆς* δ' ἀπλοί*ας* τυγχάνει ὥστε εἰς ἔμπυρα ἔρχεται καὶ αὐτῷ λέγει **ὁ** Κάλχ**ας** ταῦτα. Κάλχ**ας** λέγει ὅτι τῷ πατρὶ μὲν δεῖ ἐμέ, κόρην τὴν Ἰφιγένειαν, σφάζειν Ἀρτέμιδι καὶ αὐτῇ δὲ λαβεῖν ἄποινα. καὶ Κάλχ**ας** λέγει αὐτῷ ὅτι κάλλιστον εὔχεται παῖδα φωσφόρῳ θύειν θεᾷ. τὴν παῖδ' οὖν Ἰφιγένειαν **ἡ** Κλυταιμήστρ**α** τίκτει. **ὁ** Κάλχ**ας** τὸ κάλλιστον εἰς ἐμὲ ἀναφέρει ὥστε χρὴ τὸν πατέρα θύειν. **ὁ** δὲ ἐμὲ Ὀδυσσ*έως* τέχναις μητρ*ὸς* παραλαμβάνει ἐπὶ γάμοις Ἀχιλλ*έως*.

### **Adverbs and Verbs**


**θύω** *sacrifice*

### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**




1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentence found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

δεινῆς δ' ἀπλοίας τυγχάνει ὥστε εἰς ἔμπυρ' ἔρχεται καὶ αὐτῷ λέγει ὁ Κάλχας ταῦτα.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

# **Classics and Our Modern World: the Aquila Theatre and Theater of War Productions**

Presenting classics from throughout time, the Aquila Theatre puts flesh and blood on the great works of the past. Past performances from the ancient world include, *Herakles*, the *Iliad* and *Odyssey*, and *Philoktetes*. Aquila seeks to reinterpret the Classics for contemporary audiences and to bring diversity to them. Aquila expands the canon and attempts to change our perceptions. It also provides extensive educational offerings and is an award-winning leader in the field of public humanities programming. For more information, follow this link:

Aquila Theatre. 1

<sup>1</sup> https://www.aquilatheatre.com/.

Theater of War Productions presents dramatic readings of classical Greek tragedies and modern and contemporary works. After the performance, it holds town-hall-style discussions designed to confront social issues by discussing the themes highlighted in the plays. The open discussions invite audience members to share their perspectives and experiences and seek to break down stigmas, foster empathy, compassion, and a deeper understanding of complex issues. In an effort to reach communities directly, Theater of War Productions partners with a range of organizations and government agencies. For more information, follow this link:

Theater of War Productions**.** 2

**Module 12 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Verbs**

**ἐθέλω (θέλω)** *wish, be willing*

**πείθω** *persuade* + inf.; (mid. or pass.) *listen to, obey* + dat. or gen.

**τυγχάνω** *happen*; *meet* + gen.; *obtain* + gen.; *hit the mark, strike* + gen.

**φαίνω** *show, reveal*; (pass.) *appear*

**χράομαι** *use, employ, experience* + dat.

# **Etymology Corner XII by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 8, Parts of Speech

**Coordinating Conjunctions, Module 5.** Think about map coordinates—you go over on the x axis for a bit, then go up on the y axis. Both halves of the coordinates are equally valuable. If your clothing coordinates, your attire comes together in complementary colors or styles and no particular piece sticks out. This is because they are ordered with the other pieces of clothing, from Latin **co-** *with, together* and **ordo** *row, order, rank (***ordo** is the word from which the English word **order** derives). This is why a **coordinating conjunction** has both words or clauses on an equal footing: one isn't dependent on another. Creating dependence is what a **subordinating conjunction** does. More on that next.

<sup>2</sup> https://theaterofwar.com/about.

**What to Study and Do 12.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have learned what a substantive adjective is and how Greek uses the article to create one. After you have completed Modules 14 and 15, come back to this module and complete for a second time the practice exercises for the substantive adjective. Notice how much your understanding of this fundamental concept has improved.

**Learning Tip 12: Consonance and Dissonance.** The right side of our brain processes new information. As we process it, the left half of our brain brings analysis, logic, and reason to what we have learned. In the end both hemispheres come to a shared understanding of the new information. When we engage in further defining information we use our left hemisphere. The left half of our brain rationalizes information and rejects anomalies. It sees things through a flashlight's beam. If a gorilla walks through a volleyball game, the left side of our brain tends to miss the strangeness completely. When we consider ambiguities and contradictions, we engage the right side of our brain. We look out, holding a lantern's light. Dissonance in the right side of our brain opens us to novelty, to new ways of thinking, to creativity. When using your long-term memory to assist your short-term memory, you are accelerating your brain's ability to store new information. Remember the formula **LTM + STM = MTM** and remember that by using your imagination to create memorable images that you can **SEE**, you improve your brain's ability to process and store new information.

# Module 13 **Third Declension Nouns**

## **Nouns**

Nouns in Greek are defined just as nouns in English; but the way they create meaning is different. As in English, Greek nouns (**ὀνόματα**) refer to people, places, things, and ideas. Greek nouns have endings. English nouns can change form when they show possession, as in **Jada's book**, where the **'s** is added as a suffix and indicates that the book belongs to Jada. English nouns also change form when expressing the plural: two **suns**, three **oxen**, four **mice**. The endings on Greek nouns, as we have seen previously, create the same meanings that English does through form change, word order, and the use of prepositional phrases.

# **Greek Nouns**

In Greek there are three noun declensions: first, second, and third. In this text, the third declension, also called the consonant declension, is taught first because it offers the most complexity. Once you understand the third declension, it is easier for you to learn the remaining two declensions. Learning the third declension first also reinforces why the stem, the base to which endings are attached, is taken from the genitive singular. Also by learning the third declension before the other two, you will be less inclined to match or rhyme noun and adjective endings when you modify a noun with an adjective.

# **Noun Sets 1–10**

Since each Greek noun takes only one set of endings, this text numbers the endings by sets 1–10. The aim in doing so is to make clear the correspondence between one noun to which one set of endings is added. It is also a helpful way to refer to the endings when identifying nouns and discussing things like case and function. The noun sets learned in this module are sets 9 and 10, so numbered to maintain consistency across the traditional order of nouns of the first, second, and third declension.

### **Noun Gender**

Most nouns have only one gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter. Sometimes the noun's gender matches biological sex: **ὁ πατήρ** *father* is masculine and **ἡ μήτηρ** *mother* is feminine. At other times noun gender and biological sex do not match: the noun **τὸ παιδίον** *child* is neuter in gender. Occasionally the same noun may have a common gender that depends upon biological sex: **ὁ θεός** *god*; **ἡ θεός** *goddess*; **ἡ παῖς** *girl*; **ὁ παῖς** *boy*; **ἡ ἵππός** *mare*; **ὁ ἵππος** *stallion*. Τhe article, **ὁ, ἡ, τό,** indicates the noun's gender. **ὁ** indicates that the noun is masculine. **ἡ** indicates that the noun is feminine and **τό** that it is neuter.

### **Third Declension Nouns**

All third declension nouns have a stem that ends in a consonant or an iota **ι-**, or upsilon **υ-**. All third declension nouns use the same endings but for some nouns the ending is disguised by ablaut, contraction, or quantitative metathesis. In this module you learn the endings and also how to recognize them when they are disguised. Unlike nouns of the first and second declension, the nominative singular of nouns of the third declension varies. For this reason a blank, **---**, is written for the nominative singular of these nouns. The gender of third declension nouns that take set 9 endings is either masculine or feminine. The gender of nouns that take set 10 endings is always neuter. The gender of third declension subtype nouns is indicated within each paradigm.

## **Identifying Noun Sets**

As already noted, the article, roughly equivalent to the English **the**, tells you the gender of each noun. Most nouns have one gender, though occasionally a noun can have the common gender of either feminine or masculine, i.e. it can be either feminine or masculine. In lexical entries like the ones below, the nominative singular form comes first. The genitive singular comes second and the article third. From these three pieces of information you can identify each noun's gender and you can identify what set of endings any noun has. Remember that each noun has only one ending set. By the end of Part I of the *21st-Century* series you will have learned 10 noun sets found in three noun declensions.


# **Declining Third Declension Nouns**

To decline third declension nouns, first get the stem by removing the genitive singular ending **-ος**. What remains is the **stem**, the base of the word the ending is joined to. To the stem add the endings from either Set 9 or Set 10, in accordance with what set the noun belongs to.


1. For Set 9 the nominative singular varies, hence the blank, **---**.


Consider the following third declension nouns and note how each declines.


For each noun, above the first form is the nominative singular, the second is the genitive singular, and the third is the article.


### **Singular**


#### **Plural**



5. When **-αντ-, -εντ-,** and **-οντ-** are combined with the ending **-σι**, the nu and tau, **-ντ-**, drop out and a long vowel or diphthong appears by a process called compensatory lengthening. A diphthong that results from compensatory lengthening is called a spurious diphthong. Look carefully at the following dative plural nouns:


noting how the letters combine and the form changes.

### **Four Subtypes of Third Declension Nouns**

All third declension nouns use the same endings, but for some nouns the ending has been disguised by ablaut, contraction, or quantitative metathesis. Do not plan on memorizing each of the four subtypes, though you may find memorizing the contractions helpful. Do memorize the endings of sets 9 and 10. Use your knowledge of the endings of sets 9 and 10 to recognize the subtypes and case of each noun.

### **1) Subtype 1 Nouns with Stem Ending in ρ- or ερ-** (ablaut)**:**





**2) Subtype 2 Nouns with Stem Ending in σ-** (ablaut, contraction, and disappearance of intervocalic sigma, **-σ-):**

### **Neuter Nouns Ending in –ος: γένος** *race*




**Neuter Nouns Ending in –ας: γῆρας,** *old age*




### **Feminine and Masculine Nouns Ending in ης-: τριήρης** *trireme*




4. In the Attic dialect after sigma dropped out the vowels did contract: **εα > η ; εε > ει; εο > ου; εω > ω**.

### **Proper Nouns Ending in ης-: Σωκράτης** *Sokrates*




**3) Subtype 3 Nouns with Stem Ending in ι-** (ablaut, contraction, disappearance of intervocalic digamma, -**ϝ**-, quantitative metathesis):

# **S Pl N** πόλις πόλιες, πόληες, πόλεις (εϝες) **A** πόλιv πόλιας, πόληας, πόλῑς, πόλεις **G** πόλιος, πόληoς, πόλεως πόλιωv, πόλεων (εϝων) **D** πόλιι, πόλι, πόληι, πόλει (εϝι) πολίεσσι (v), πόλεσι (ν), πόλισι (ν) **V** πόλι πόλιες, πόληες, πόλεις (εϝες)



#### **Feminine**

**4) Subtype 4 Nouns with Stem Ending in ηυ- or ηϝ-** (contraction, disappearance of intervocalic digamma, -**ϝ**-, quantitative metathesis):


**V** βασιλεῦ (ηυ) βασιλῆες, βασιλῆς, βασιλεῖς


10.Similar nouns are **ἱππεύς** *horserider*, **χαλκεύς** *metal-worker*, **Πρωτεύς** *Proteus*, **Ἀχαρνεύς**, *Akharnian*.

**Practice Identifying Third Declension Nouns.** For the nouns below, tell whether the noun takes set 9 endings, set 10 endings, or declines like one of the four subtypes of third declension nouns. Το succeed, you need to identify correctly the gender and the nominative and genitive singular, matching each with the correct set or subtype.


**Practice Understanding Adjective and Noun Agreement.** Pick the article that agrees in gender, case, and number with the nouns below. Note that to perform this exercise correctly you must know both the gender and the case of each noun. To determine a noun's gender you may cut and paste the noun into the search bar of the PDF, you may look the noun up in the glossary in this text, you may use the online resource, Logeion Lexicon, or Wiktionary1 or you may

<sup>1</sup> https://logeion.uchicago.edu/lexidium https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%86%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%AF

use any resource that gives you the correct gender of nouns. To determine the correct case, use your knowledge of stems and endings. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.


### **Helen**

Born to Leda and to Zeus, Helen has three siblings: Klytaimnestra, Kastor, and Polydeukes. Helen and Polydeukes (aka Pollux) are said to be the children of Zeus and Leda, the wife of Tyndareus, whom Zeus seduced after taking the form of a swan. Kastor and Klytaimnestra are the children of the mortals, Tyndareus and Leda. Helen is cited as the reason why the Greeks fought the the Trojan War, whose cause dates back to a time when the gods and goddesses were celebrating the wedding of the mortal Peleus to the goddess Thetis. All divinities were invited to the wedding except for Eris, the goddess of discord and strife. She attended anyway and threw a golden apple amidst the guests, announcing that it belonged to the most beautiful. Zeus' wife Hera claimed the apple as did Athene, goddess of war and crafts, and Aphrodite, goddess of love. Each goddess thought she was the most beautiful and should be given the golden apple. Zeus turned the matter over to the Trojan prince, Paris (aka Alexandros) who presided over a beauty contest, referred to as the Judgment of Paris. Each goddess offered Paris a bribe. Hera offered him world dominion; Athene offered him martial excellence; and Aphrodite offered him Helen, the most beautiful woman in the world, though she was already married to the Greek king Menelaos. Paris chose Aphrodite and Helen. He sailed to Greece and took Helen from her home. She either went willingly, went against her will, or was sent to Egypt with a phantom Helen taking her place in Troy and in Paris' arms. Menelaos and his brother Agamemnon assembled an army of Greeks, charged with going to Troy to take Helen back. In Euripides' play, *Helen* (**Ἑλένη**), Helen has been in Egypt for the ten years of the Trojan War when her husband Menelaos arrives, shipwrecked on his journey home from Troy.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below, which are adapted from the prologue of Euripides' *Helen* (**Ἑλένη**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Note that the third declension increases the number of possible endings for the nominative singular. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.


**Ἑλένη:** λόγ**ος** ὅτι Ζ**εὺς** κύκν*ου* μορφώματα λαμβάνει καὶ Λήδαν πέτεται εἰς ἐμὴν μητέρα**.** ὄνομ**ά** δ' ἐστι ἐμοὶ Ἑλέν**η** καὶ ἃ δὲ πάσχω κακά, λέγω τοῖς Ἑλλήνοις. ἔρχονται **αἱ** θε**αὶ** κάλλ*ους* πέρι εἰς Ἰδαῖον, Ἥρ**α**, Κύπρ**ις** τε παρθέν**ος** τε. **αἱ** θε**αὶ** μορφ*ῆς* ἐθέλουσι διαπεραίνειν κρίσιν. Κύπρ**ις** νικάει καἰ ἐμὸν κάλλος Ἀλέξανδρι δίδωσιν. ἐκ δὲ Ἰδαί*ου* λείπει Πάρ**ις** καὶ εἰς Σπάρτην ἥκει καὶ βούλεται ἐμὸν λέχος ἔχειν. Ἥρ**α** δὲ μέμφεται ὅτ' οὐ νικάει τὰς θεὰς καὶ ἐξανεμόει ἐμὰ Ἀλεξάνδρῳ λέχη. Ἥρ**α** δὲ δίδωσι οὐχ ἐμὲ ἀλλ' ὁμοιόει ἐμοὶ εἴδωλον καὶ οὐραν*οῦ* συντίθησιν ἄπο. τ**ὰ** δὲ Δι*ὸς* βουλεύματ**α** πόλεμον εἰσφέρει Ἑλλήν*ων* χθονί καἰ Φρυξί. **ὁ** δὲ Ζ**εὺς** βούλεται ὄχλ*ου* βροτ*ῶν* πλήθ*εος* τε κουφίζειν μητέρα χθόνα καὶ γνωτὸν τιθέναι Ἀχιλλέα. λαμβάνει δέ ἐμὲ Ἑρμ**ῆς** καὶ νεφέλῃ καλύπτει καὶ εἰς οἶκον Πρωτ*έως* ἱδρύει.

### **Verbs**


### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**




1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentence found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

τὰ δὲ Διὸς βουλεύματα πόλεμον εἰσφέρει Ἑλλήνων χθονί καἰ Φρυξί.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

**Module 13 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Nouns**

**ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ** *man, husband*

**βασιλεύς, βασιλῆος (βασιλέως) ὁ** *king, chief*

**γυνή, γυναικός ἡ** *woman, wife*

**δύναμις, δυνάμιος (δυνάμηος, δυνάμεως) ἡ** *might, strength, power; force, army*

**Ἕλλην, Ἕλληνος ἡ ὁ** *Greek* 

**νηῦς (ναῦς), νεός (νεώς) ἡ** *ship*

**παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ** *child*

**πατήρ, πατρός ὁ** *father*

**πόλις, πόλιος (πόληος, πόλεως) ἡ** *city* 

**Verb**

**μέλλω** *be about to, be going to; be likely to* + inf. (fut. inf. in Attic)

1. The noun **ναῦς** is similar to the third declension noun **βασιλεύς**.


## **Etymology Corner XIII by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 9, Parts of Speech

**Subordinating Conjunctions, Module 5.** The word **subordinate** is built from the Latin prefix **sub-** *below, under* and noun **ordo** *row, order, rank*. A subordinating conjunction *ranks* one clause *below* the other clause, linking a dependent to an independent clause (similarly a sub**marine** (E marine < L **mare** *sea*) goes *under* the sea. So, what does independent (**in** *not*, **de** *down from*, and **pendere** *to hang down*) mean? **Pendere** *to hang down* conveys the meaning of *hanging* in the way a **pendulum** *hangs* and swings or a **pendent** is a piece of jewelry that *hangs* from a chain. The prefix **de-** means *down from*. The prefix **in-** *not* negates **dependent** and functions just as the Germanic prefix **un-** does for Anglo-Saxon words, like **uncool** (cool < OE *cōl* < a Germanic root). Your kids, while they still rely on you for sustenance, are metaphorically hanging off you. I always think of sloth babies1 (follow the link to see a picture). Once your kids come of age and can (or at least should be able to) take care of themselves, they are independent, or literally, *not hanging off* of you anymore. A **clause**, a combination of a verb with a subject, is a contained entity, or something that is complete and *closed* (**claudere**, the root of both English words **clause** and **closed**). A **clause** has the sense of *distinct, closed off* from the other parts of the sentence. Clauses are like kids. If they can stand on their own, they are **independent clauses**. If they rely on another clause to complete their meaning, they are **dependent clauses**.

<sup>1</sup> https://www.google.com/search?q=sloth+babies+hanging+on+mother

**What to Study and Do 13.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have memorized ending sets 9 and 10 for third declension nouns and that you can decline third declension nouns. Your main focus should be on committing ending sets 9 and 10 to memory. In order to remember these endings for the long term, review them a few times each week. When reviewing, make sure that you can write them out from memory without looking at the answers. Plan on reading this module two or three times. On each read your understanding will improve.

**Learning Tip 13: Stress is Normal.** Continuous learning requires analysis, logic, and memorization. Discontinuous learning involves ambiguity, creativity, and reframing. As you are presented with a novel concept, such as a completely different system of communication, you experience ambiguity and discomfort because you are required to assimilate new factual information (endings and vocabulary) and to think differently about this information from how you have done before. This process can be stressful. Remember that this stress is normal. Accept the difficulty and continue to work at understanding the new information. Using memory techniques can help to ease your stress. Of all the memory strategies used by expert memorizers, the memory palace is the one they employ most frequently. This textbook offers several variations on the memory-palace technique. The first variation is based upon your car. Let's say you want to memorize the preposition and adverb **ἀνά** (prep.) *on, upon, onto* + gen. or dat.; *up to, throughout* + acc.; (adv.) *thereon, thereupon, throughout*. We start at the car's grille. I picture **Anna** Karenina standing **on** or **upon** the car's grille. **Anna** reminds me of **ἀνά. Anna's** standing **on** or **upon** the grille reminds me of the meanings **on** or **upon**. Anna steps from the grille **onto** the hood. On the windshield is a case of **Gen**esee beer and a bowl filled with **dates**. The **Gen**esee beer and the bowl of **dates** remind me that when **ἀνά** means **on, upon, onto**, it takes the **gen**itive or **dat**ive case. Next **Anna** Karenina drives the car **up to** a river in the park. She takes a picture and then drives **throughout** the park. As she drives **throughout** the park, she sees a policeman pointing an **accus**ing finger at her. The policeman's **accus**ing finger reminds me that **ἀνά** takes the **accusative** case when it means **up to** or **throughout.** Picture the events happening in real time, and feel the heat of the policeman's **accus**ing finger directed at Anna. Anna **ad**ds a **verb** of declaration to the scene. She declares **thereon** or **thereupon** that **throughout** she has been innocent. She quickly departs the park and drives **up to** the garage and away from the **accus**ing finger of the policeman. When she arrives she sits **on** or **upon** the grille of the car and then steps **onto** the hood where she drinks a **Gen**esee beer and eats a **dat**e from the bowl. The car can be one of many different memory palaces you use in order to remember information you want to recall precisely. The memory technique still requires repetition and review. As you improve at using this technique, you will find your ability to remember accurately also improves

# **Self-Assessment Modules 1–13**

Rate yourself on a scale of 1 to 10, where 10 represents mastery and 1 its opposite. Answer each of the below thoughtfully. For any score less than a 7, review the material.

# **MEMORY**


# **APPLICATION AND CONCEPTS**


# Guest Feature 2 **Tom Holland on the Art of Translating Herodotos**

Tom Holland, an award-winning historian, author and broadcaster, tells us about his lifelong fascination with Herodotos. For more information, visit his website:

### Tom Holland.1

Herodotus is my favourite historian. I first read him when I was twelve, and since then I have repeatedly returned to him. Every time I do so I find new things to notice, to admire, to enjoy. Only when I sat down to translate him, however, did I feel that I was truly coming to know him. The chance to live with Herodotus from the beginning of what he had written to the very end felt like entering a kind of marriage. It took me time to become easy with his ways. He was full of complexities that caused me trouble and difficulty. Only with familiarity did I come to appreciate just how various his moods might be. Never once, though, did I regret it. Translation can make or break a relationship. Translating Herodotus, I was confirmed for good in my love.

His great work is many things—the first example of non-fiction, the beginning point of history, the most important source of information we have for a stirring episode in human affairs—but it is above all a treasure-trove of wonders. There is very little that Herodotus does not find fascinating. He is forever moving from theme to theme. The Greek word, **ἱστορία**, at the time when he used it to describe what he was attempting, meant not a study of the past, but simply 'enquiry'—and though there is certainly no lack of history in his great work, there is also plenty of geography, ethnography and zoology. There are laugh-out-loud anecdotes and chilling tales of revenge,

<sup>1</sup> https://www.tom-holland.org/.

accounts of mummification and disquisitions on giant ants, stirring narratives of battles and tales of bedroom duplicity. This means that there is never one single style. The fun of translating Herodotus lies not just in tracking the range and variety of his Greek, but in finding ways of conveying some sense of it in English. The many different accents and tones with which Herodotus speaks are the surest key to Herodotus himself.

Centuries after his death, a critic in the Roman Empire described him as being "very like Homer". By this he meant that Herodotus was to prose what the author of the *Iliad* and the *Odyssey* was to epic: the supreme, the original fountainhead. To read his 'enquiry' is to engage with something both primal and heroic: an attempt to push back the frontiers of knowledge on almost every conceivable front. The premium that Herodotus set on providing sources for his material is so taken for granted now by historians that it is possible not to recognize just how revolutionary it originally was. In his account of the build-up to the battle of Plataea, for instance, he describes what he has been told by a man called Thersander of Orchomenus, who in turn is reporting what he was told at a banquet by a Persian fellow-guest. It is a moment to send a shiver down the spine. Men dead for two-and-a-half-thousand years are being given voice. We are witness to the birth-pangs of historical method. History is doubly being made. Thrilling though it is to read such a passage in English, it is even more so to read it in Greek. Few experiences in literature can rival it.

Herodotus' ambition, he declares in the opening sentence of the first work of history ever written, was to ensure that "human achievement may be spared the ravages of time". Literally, he spoke of not allowing them to become **ἐξίτηλα**, a word that could be used in a technical sense to signify the fading of paint from inscriptions or works of art. Today, the colours applied by Herodotus to his portrait of the long-gone world in which he lived remain as fresh and exuberant as ever. The surest and most moving way to inspect them, however, is by mastering the language in which he wrote. Herodotus is a joy in any language; but to read him in Greek is a rare and precious privilege. I rank the chance I was given to translate him as one of the great experiences of my life.

To watch an interview with Tom by Viral History, follow this link:

Viral History's Interview with Tom Holland. 2

<sup>2</sup> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cyQUu\_1XlhA.

# Module 14 **First Declension Nouns in –**η **and -**ᾱ **and** τίς**,** τί**;** τις**,** τι**;** ὅστις**,** ἥτις**,** ὅτι

### **Nouns**

Nouns in Greek are defined just like nouns are in English; but the way they create meaning is different. As in English, Greek nouns (**ὀνόματα**) refer to people, places, things, and ideas. Greek nouns have endings. English nouns can change form when they show possession, as in **Jada's book**, where the **'s** is added as a suffix and indicates that the book belongs to Jada. English nouns also change form when expressing the plural: two **suns**, three **oxen**, four **mice**. The endings on Greek nouns, as we have seen previously, create the same meanings that English does through form change, word order, and the use of prepositional phrases.

# **First Declension Nouns in** -η **and** -ᾱ

All first declension nouns ending in **-η** or **-ᾱ** are feminine in gender. Memorize both sets of endings, know how to obtain a noun's stem, and know how to decline the nouns.

# **Dialect Note**

Historically in the Ionic dialect there was a vowel shift where eta replaced long alpha. In the Attic dialect this shift occurred in the noun endings except after **-ε***,*  **-ι***,* or **-ρ**: Attic **χώρᾱ** and Ionic **χώρη**.

# **Declining First Declension Nouns in** -η **and** -ᾱ

To decline first declension nouns ending in **-η** or **-ᾱ**, first get the stem by removing the genitive singular ending **-ης** or **-ᾱς**. What remains is the **stem**, the base of the word to which the ending is joined. To the stem add the following endings:


#### **τέχνη, τέχνης**

To decline **τέχνη, τέχνης ἡ** *skill*, take the genitive singular **τέχνης** and remove the genitive singular ending -**ης** to get the stem, **τέχν-**. Then add the endings from Set 1 above.




### **χώρᾱ, χώρᾱς**

To decline **χώρᾱ, χώρᾱς ἡ** *land, country*, take the genitive singular **χώρᾱς**, and remove the genitive singular ending -**ᾱς** to get the stem, **χώρ-**. Then add the endings from Set 2 above.


### **ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς**

To decline **ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς ἡ** *rule, command; beginning; province*, take the genitive singular **ἀρχῆς** and remove the genitive singular ending -**ης** to get the stem, **ἀρχ-**. Then add the endings from Set 1 above.

**V** χώρᾱ χῶραι




**Practice Declining Nouns.** Decline the two nouns below. When declining, list the five cases in the singular and in the plural. Include the article. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

```
ψυχή, ψυχῆς ἡ soul
ἀγορά, ἀγορᾶς ἡ marketplace
```
Writing out nouns with their endings assists in your memorization of endings.

# **Pronouns and Adjectives**

Remember that pronouns take the place of nouns and function just as other Greek nouns do. Adjectives agree in gender, case, and number with the nouns they modify. If no noun is present, supply the appropriate noun based upon the adjective's gender and number or upon context. Adjectives that function as nouns are substantive.

# **The Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective,** τίς, τί

As a pronoun the interrogative **τίς, τί** means *who?* or *what?*; as an adjective the interrogative **τίς, τί** means *which?* or *what?*

#### **Singular**


#### **Plural**


#### **Singular**


### **Plural**


1. When followed by another word, the acute accent on **τίς, τί** never changes to a grave.

# **The Indefinite Pronoun and Adjective** τις, τι

As a pronoun **τις, τι** means *someone, something, anyone, anything; certain one, certain thing*; as an adjective **τις, τι** means *some, any; certain; a*. Use *certain*  when an author is making reference to something particular without making the identification precise.


#### **Plural**


#### **Singular**


#### **Plural**


1. The indefinite pronoun and adjective differ from the interrogative pronoun and adjective in accent only and are enclitics. Enclitics are pronounced closely with the word that precedes them. Some common ones are the adverbs **γε, ποθέν, ποι, ποτέ, που, πως,** and **τοι**; the conjunction **τε;** the pronouns **με, μοι, μου, σε, σοι σου, τι,** and **τις;**  and the verbs **εἰμί, φημί**. Enclitics sometimes have an accent and sometimes do not. They can also affect the accent of the word that precedes them. How they do is covered in Part II of the *21st-Century*  series.

# **The Indefinite** ὅστις, ἥτι, ὅτι

**ὅτι. ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτι** as an indefinite relative pronoun means *whoever, whatever*. As an indefinite interrogative pronoun and adjective it means *who, what*. It is formed by combining the relative pronoun, **ὅς, ἥ, ὅ** with **τις, τι.**





**Practice Translating the Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective.** Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key.


10.εἰς τίνας στρατιώτας δεῖ ἐλθεῖν;

**Practice Translating the Indefinite Pronoun and Adjective.** Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key.


10.εἰς τινας στρατιώτας δεῖ ἐλθεῖν;

**Practice Translating the Indefinite Relative Pronoun and Indefinite Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective.** Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key.


### **Vocabulary**


1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below, adapted from Euripides' *Herakles* or *Herakles Mainomenos* (**Ἡρακλῆς μαινόμενος**)**.** Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Note that the third declension increases the number of possible endings for the nominative singular. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key and then go back and reread the sentences a couple of times more, trying to read rather than translate.


ὄνομ**α** ἐμοὶ Ἀμφιτρύ**ων**, **ὁ** Δι*ὸς* σύλλεκτρ**ος** καὶ **ὁ** πατ**ὴρ** Ἡρακλέ*ους*. ἐγὼ τὰς Θήβας ἔχω ἔνθα **ὁ** γηγεν**ὴς** στάχ**υς** Σπαρτ*ῶν* βλάστει. τοὺς μὲν αὐτ*ῶν* Ἄρ**ης** σῴζει, ἀριθμὸν ὀλίγον· **οἱ** δὲ θνῄσκουσιν. **οἱ** Σπαρτ**οὶ** Κάδμ*ου* πόλιν τεκνόουσι παίδ*ων* παισί. ἔνθεν ἐκ αὐτ*ῶν* γίγνεται Κρέ**ων** Μενοικ*έως* παῖ**ς**, ἄνα**ξ** τ*ῆς* χθον*ός*. Κρέ**ων** δὲ τ*ῆς* Μεγάρ*ας* γίγνεται πατ**ήρ**· αὐτὴν ὑμεναίοις Καδμεῖ**οί** ποτε λωτῷ συναλαλάζουσιν. τότε εἰς τοὺς δόμους, Θήβας, οὗ κατοικίζω ἐγ**ώ**, **ὁ** κλειν**ὸς** Ἡρακλ**ῆς** αὐτὴν ἄγει. **ὁ** δὲ λείπει Θήβας Μεγάραν τε πενθερούς τε. **ὁ** παῖ**ς** Κυκλωπίαν πόλιν ὀρέγεται οἰκέειν, Τίρυνθα. Ἀργεῖα τείχη φεύγω ἐπεὶ κτείνω Ἠλεκτρύωνα. τὰς δὲ συμφορὰς ἐξευμαρίζει. καὶ πάτραν οἰκέειν θέλει ὥστε καθόδ*ου* δίδωσι μισθὸν Εὐρυσθεῖ μέγαν—ἐξημερόειν γαῖαν. εἴτε Ἥρ**α** αὐτὸν δαμάζει κέντροις εἴτε αὐτὸν **ἡ** μοῖρ**α** ἀναγκάζει παθεῖν. καὶ τοὺς μὲν ἄλλους ἐκμοχθέει πόνους καὶ τὸ δὲ λοίσθιον μετὰ ταῦτα ἔρχεται ἐς Ἅιδ*ου* τὸν τρισώματον κύνα ἀνάγειν.

#### **Adverbs and Verbs**



**\*θέλω** *wish, be willing*

#### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**





**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentence found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

εἴθ' (εἴτε) Ἥρα αὐτὸν δαμάζει κέντροις εἴτε αὐτὸν ἡ μοῖρα ἀναγκάζει παθεῖν.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

# **Classics and Our Modern World: The Warrior Chorus**

The Warrior Chorus trains veterans to offer public programming based on classical literature and its connections to the experiences of people who have served in the military. It uses classical texts to inspire people to reflect on the connections between the works of the ancient Greeks and the issues they reflect in their own lives, bringing members of the public together with the American veteran community to experience live stagings, readings, workshops, lectures, and discussions. The Warrior Chorus provides a rich contextual frame for ancient literature to inspire in-depth public discussions about war, conflict, comradeship, country, home, family, injuries, work, politics—themes every American should have the opportunity to reflect upon as informed citizens in a vibrant democracy. For more information on The Warrior Chorus, follow this link:

The Warrior Chorus. 1

<sup>1</sup> http://www.warriorchorus.org/.

**Module 14 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronouns**

**Ζεύς, Διός ὁ** *Zeus*

**μήτηρ, μητέρος (μητρός) ἡ** *mother*

**μέρος, μέρεος (μέρους) τό** *share, portion, part; limb; one's turn*

**ὄνομα, ὀνόματος τό** *name*

**πρᾶγμα, πράγματος τό** *matter, thing, affair; problem*

**πλῆθος, πλήθεος (πλήθους) τό** *great number, multitude; sum*

**τις, τι** (pronoun) *anyone, anything; someone, something;* (adjective) *some, any, a, a certain*

**τίς, τί** (adjective or pronoun) *who, what, which, why*

**χρῆμα, χρήματος τό** *thing;* (pl.) *goods, money, property*

1. The noun **Ζεύς** is similar to the third declension noun **βασιλεύς**.


# **Etymology Corner XIV by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 10, Parts of Speech

**Nouns, Pronouns, and Cases, Modules 7, 13, 14, 16, 18, 21, 22.** One of the strangest etymologies we'll come across comes from the terminology around what you do with nouns and pronouns to indicate their case or role in a sentence. Strap in.

It starts simply with the Latin noun **nomen** *name*, since when you use a noun, you are *naming* a person, place, thing or idea—**Larry**, **floor**, **grammar**, **love** are all things identified through a specific name. In Greek the word for noun (and adjective) is also *name*: **ὄνομα**. If you want to use a small word *in place of* (**pro-**) that name, you use a **pronoun***,* or in Greek **ἀντωνυμία**, the word **ἀντι-** *in place of* the noun, **ὄνομα.**

**What to Study and Do 14.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have memorized ending sets 1 and 2 for first declension nouns ending in –η and -ᾱ and that you can decline these nouns from memory. Review the **Case and Function Chart** from Module 7. Notice how your understanding of endings and how they create meaning improves as you work your way through the text.

**Learning Tip 14: Balance Inside and Outside Views.** Strike the right balance between inside views and outside views. An outside view is a baseline. How often do things of this sort happen in situations of this sort? For example, how likely is it for a genitive to show possession? The outside view takes into consideration the overall percentage of genitives that show possession, and comes to realize that this percentage is the highest of all the gentive functions. The inside view considers the factors specific to the particular sentence you are reading. Many times the genitive will show possession but often it will not. The inside view represents the times when it serves a function different from its most common one of possession. For example, in the sentence, **they freed them from chains**, the noun **chains** will be in the genitive without a Greek preposition that is equivalent to the English preposition **from**. We see how the inside view can work differently when we witness an automobile accident when travelling. Due to what Daniel Kahneman calls the heuristic of representativeness, upon seeing an accident we will think that car accidents are much more likely than they actually are. Here, the inside view incorrectly influences our understanding of the outside view. Note the various ways you can apply the idea of balancing outside and inside views to your other courses and to life itself.

# Module 15 **Attributive and Predicate Position**

# **Word Order**

Greek creates meaning through prepositional phrases and through endings. Word order also matters. Attributive position creates meaning by placing the article and the attribute in a specific sequence. As you read, pay attention to the arrangement of words, noticing why word order matters in Greek.

# **Attributive Position**

Attributive position tells us that a noun is to be translated with other words. Consider the phrase **the woman in the road**. Since **the woman** referred to is the person standing in the road, Greek may place the words **in the road** into attributive position with the noun **woman.**

Consider another phrase, **the white stripes**. In this example, the noun **stripes** is described by the adjective **white** and so Greek can place the adjective, **white**, into attributive position with the noun, **stripes**.

In the examples below the attributes **ὑπὸ λίθῳ** *under a rock* and **καλός** *good* are in bold; underlined are the articles and nouns, σκορπίος, σκορπίου ὁ *scorpion* and ὄνειρος, ὀνείρου ὁ *dream*. The general rule for attributive position is that the article will directly precede the attribute. Three possibilities exist.

### 1. article **attribute** noun:


### 2. article noun article **attribute**:

a. ὁ σκορπίος ὁ **ὑπὸ λίθῳ** *the scorpion under a rock* b. ὁ ὄνειρος ὁ **καλός** *the good dream*

3. noun article **attribute**:


Note that in all of the above examples, the article directly precedes the attribute.

# **Other Possibilities**

Greek uses **attributive position** to tell you what words are to be translated together to create a phrase. When no article is present, consider these four examples,


# **Predicate Position**

If the words are not in attributive position and an article is present, consider these two examples,

> **Example 1: ὁ** βίος βραχύς. **option 1:** *life is short.*

**Example 2:** ἐν τῷ κινδύνῳ **ὁ** ἄνθρωπος **option 1:** *the man is in danger.*

This arrangement of words with the article present is called **predicate position**.

**Practice with Attributive Position.** Write out the following in all forms of attributive position. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.


**Practice with Predicate Position.** Write out the following in all forms of predicate position. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.


## **Ancient Greek Thought and Living Well**

During the Archaic Age (799–480 BCE) and after, Greeks in the various citystates of Hellas were becoming increasingly aware of their rationale for doing things. They recognized custom, usage, and tradition as the reasons behind much of what they did and many of the beliefs and values they held. Thus they began to look for a better way to live well and a better authority for their beliefs, conventions, institutions, and values. One place they looked was nature and soon saw that, in nature, birth and wealth were irrelevant. Another place they looked was to logic and reason. Intellectuals, including philosophers and sophists, engaged in these inquiries.

Philosophical inquiry predates sophism, the discipline of the sophists. Philosophers asked if the universe had a beginning, how it began, and what its elements were. They saw the world as something ordered and rational and sought to explain as much as possible in terms as little as possible, i.e., via theories. These intellectuals were often highly skilled mathematicians.

**Sophism** can be traced at least back to the early 6th century when philosophers—from the Greek adjective **φιλόσοφος** *lover of wisdom*—were intent on explaining the universe and all its contents by means of science rather than religion. The loan word **sophism** comes from the Greek adjective, **σοφός, σοφή, σοφόν**, *clever, skilled, wise*. **Sophists** were mainly itinerant teachers, travelling from city to city, teaching for a fee various subjects, including physics, astronomy, mathematics, and the art of rhetoric. They promised their pupils material success through bettering themselves by education. Sophists were viewed by some as having a corrupting influence on the young by teaching them atheism, scientific inquiry, rhetoric (making the lesser argument the stronger), and a new relativistic morality.

In the below there is a list of some prominent Greek intellectuals. In the **Practice Translating** that follows, you will read fragments written by Thales, Herakleitos, Aiskhylos, Euripides, Antiphon, Sokrates, and Aristoteles.

**Thales of Miletos, Θαλῆς ὁ Μιλήσιος, c. 624 BCE.** Thales was a pre-Socratic philosopher who predicted an eclipse of the sun in 585 BCE and argued that the universe's prime element was water**.** Two of Thales' writings are found below in the **Practice Translating**.

**Anaximandros of Miletos, Ἀναξίμανδρος ὁ Μιλήσιος, c.610–546 BCE.** Anaximandros was a pre-Socratic philosopher who put forth the theory that the infinite was the universe's origin.

**Anaximenes of Miletos, Ἀναξιμένης ὁ Μιλήσιος, c.586–526 BCE.** Anaximenes was a pre-Socratic philosopher who proposed air as the universe's prime substance.

**Pythagoras of Samos, Πῡθαγόρᾱς ὁ Σάμιος**, **c. 570–495 BCE.** Pythagoras was a pre-Socratic philosopher who argued that the soul was immortal and after its death was reborn into another body, either man, animal, or plant, through a process called metempsychosis, **μετεμψύχωσις**. The only end to this cycle was to attain purity of intellect and soul.

**Xenophanes of Kolophon, Ξενοφάνης ὁ Κολοφώνιος, c. 570–478 BCΕ.** Xenophanes was a pre-Socratic philosopher who criticized Hesiod and Homer, arguing that their explanation of divine and human affairs was incorrect. He also criticized the adulation of athletes because wise men were much more important to society than some champion boxer. Finally, he asserted that the gods were not anthropomorphic but that there was one god who was moral and motionless, all-knowing and all-powerful.

**Herakleitos (Heraclitus) of Ephesos, Ἡράκλειτος ὁ Ἐφέσιος, c.535–475 BCE.** Herakleitos was a pre-Socratic philosopher who argued that the universe's prime substance was fire, which all things contained within them, that the universe had always existed, and that all is in flux for one can never step into the same river twice. Three quotes by him are found below in the **Practice Translating**.

**Aiskhylos (Aeschylus) of Athens, Αἰσχύλος ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 525–456 BCE.**  Aiskhylos wrote satyr plays and tragedies. He composed about ninety plays, of which seven survive. Many fragments from his other plays are found quoted by other later authors or on Egyptian papyrus scraps. Aristoteles writes that Aiskhylos expanded the number of characters in the theatre and allowed them to interact with each other instead of only with the chorus. One of his plays, *Prometheus Bound*, may have been written by his son, Euphorion. Another of his plays, *The Persians*, is the only extant tragedy concerning contemporary events that survives. One quote by him is found below in the **Practice Translating**.

**Parmenides of Elea, Παρμενίδης ὁ Ἐλεάτης, c. 500 BCE.** Parmenides was a pre-Socratic philosopher who reasoned that the earth was a sphere and that sense perception was illusory. Thus the only way to truth was through logic.

**Anaxagoras of Klazomenai, Ἀναξαγόρας, Κλαζομεναί, c. 500–428 BCE.** Anaxagoras was a pre-Socratic philosopher and a good friend of the Athenian statesman Perikles. Anaxagoras spent much of his time in the cultural center of his day, Athens. He declared that the sun was a stone and not a god. The Athenians may have brought him to court and had him exiled on charges of impiety and pro-Persian sympathies. It is uncertain if the charges were real, political, or fabricated by later biographers.

**Sophokles (Sophocles) of Athens, Σοφοκλῆς ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 497–406 BCE.** Sophokles wrote satyr plays and tragedies. He composed over 120 plays and seven have survived, the most famous being *Oidipous Tyrannos* (*Oidipous Rex*) and *Antigone*. He is said to have won twenty-four of the thirty competitions he entered. Of him it is said that he portrayed people as better than they are in reality.

**Empedokles of Akragas, Ἐμπεδοκλῆς, Ἀκράγας, Σικελία, c.494–434 BCE.** Empedokles was a pre-Socratic philosopher, who contended that the senses were routes to knowledge and that the universe was made up of the following four substances: earth, air, fire, and water.

**Protagoras of Abdera, Thrace, Πρωταγόρας, Ἄβδηρα, Θρᾴκη, c.490–420 BCE.**  Protagoras was a pre-Socratic philosopher. In his dialogue *Protagoras*, Plato writes that Protagoras invented the professional sophist. Protagoras argued that it did not matter whether the gods existed—he was an agnostic—that there were two sides to every question, each opposed to the other; that the soul was nothing apart from the senses; that everything is true; that all values were relative; and that man is the "measure of all things, of things that are that they are, and of things that are not that they are not." For these views it is said that the Athenians expelled him from their city and burnt his works in the marketplace (Diogenes Laertius 9. 51–52).

**Gorgias of Leontini, Γοργίας, Λεοντῖνοι, c. 483–376 BCE.** Gorgias was a sophist, who specialized in teaching the art of rhetoric.

**Antiphon of Rhamnos, Ἀντιφῶν ὁ Ῥαμνούσιος, c. 480–411 BCE.** Antiphon was an orator, engaged in 5th-century Athenian political and intellectual life. One quote by him is found below in the **Practice Translating**.

**Euripides of Athens, Εὐριπίδης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c.480–406 BCE.** An innovator who did not gain wide acceptance until after his death, Euripides wrote satyr plays and tragedies. He introduced comedy into tragedy and presented the heroes and heroines of his plays as everyday people. He was a proponent of the new music, which broke with tradition and is a feature of his work that shocked some of his contemporaries. In several plays (*Helen*, *Ion*, *Iphigeneia in Tauris*), he created tragicomic plots that foreshadowed the so-called New Comedy. Four quotes by him are found below in the **Practice Translating**.

**Sokrates (Socrates) of Athens, Σωκρᾰ ́της ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 469–399 BCE.** Sokrates was an Athenian stonemason and carver and very poor. He was accused of being a sophist and was loved by some and hated by many of the Athenian people. Early in life Sokrates was intrigued by scientific speculation. He soon grew skeptical of it and turned his attention to inquiring into the right conduct of life. Two quotes by him are found below in the **Practice Translating**.

**Demokritos (Democritus) of Abdera, Thrace, Δημόκριτος, Ἄβδηρα, Θρᾴκη, c.460–370 BCE.** Demokritos was a pre-Socratic philosopher, who proposed that all things were composed of atoms and void. Atoms were the smallest building blocks of the universe and void allowed motion to occur. His theory was later popularized by Epikouros and then expounded by the Roman poet and philosopher Lucretius. Six quotes by him are found below in the **Practice Translating**.

**Hippokrates (Hippocrates) of Kos, Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος, c.460–370 BC.** Hippokrates was a physician, who made outstanding contributions to the field of medicine. Founder of the Hippocratic School of Medicine, he established medicine as a discipline and profession. He is credited with writing the Hippocratic Oath, a code of ethics still in use today.

**Thrasymakhos of Khalkedon, Θρασύμαχος, Χαλκηδών, c. 459–400 BCE.** Thrasymakhos was a sophist, who taught that justice is the interest of the stronger, i.e., that "might makes right." He is best known as a character in Plato's *Republic*.

**Aristophanes of Athens, Ἀριστοφάνης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 446–c. 386 BCE.** Aristophanes wrote comic plays. Of forty or so plays, eleven have survived and represent a genre of comic drama referred to as Old Comedy.

**Platon (Plato) of Athens, Πλάτων ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 428–424 BCE.** Plato was a student of Sokrates and a philosopher. Best known for his theory of forms and highly influential in his own day, Plato's works continue to be read and studied.

**Diogenes the Cynic of Sinope, Διογένης ὁ Κυνικός, Σινώπη, c. 412–323 BCE.** Diogenes was a philosopher and founder of the Cynic school of philosophy. He believed in moral action rather than in theory. He lived simply and frugally, looking to nature as a guide to living well and authentically, declaring himself a citizen of the world.

**Aristoteles (Aristotle) of Stageira, Ἀριστοτέλης, Στάγειρα, c. 384–322 BCE.** Aristoteles was a student of Plato and a philosopher. He founded the peripatetic school of philosophy and wrote on many subjects, including aesthetics, biology, economics, ethics, government, linguistics, logic, metaphysics, music, physics, poetry, politics, psychology, rhetoric, theater, and zoology. Aristotle's works continue to be read and studied. One of his quotes is found below in the **Practice Translating**.

**Menandros (Menander) of Athens, Μένανδρος ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 342–290 BCE.**  Menandros was a comic playwright who wrote 108 comedies. Popular in his own day, Menandros took first prize at the dramatic games of the Lenaia festival eight times. Many fragments and one play, almost complete, the *Dyskolos*, have survived the ravages of time. One quote by him is found below in the **Practice Translating**.

**Aristarkhos of Samos, Ἀρίσταρχος ὁ Σάμιος, c. 310–c. 230 BCE.** Aristarkhos was an astronomer and a mathematician who placed the sun at the center of the universe in the first known heliocentric view of the universe.

**Eukleides (Euclid) of Alexandria, Εὐκλείδης c. 300 BCE.** Born in Alexandria, Eukleides developed a conceptual system of geometry from a small set of axioms. His book, *Elements*, has been used to teach geometry up until 150 or so years ago.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below, taken from proverbs and a variety of ancient Greek authors. Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Note that the third declension increases the number of possible endings for the nominative singular. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.



#### **Adverbs and Verbs**


#### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**




1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.



32.κρεῖσσ**ον** ἄρχεσθαι τοῖς ἀνοήτοις ἢ ἄρχειν (Proverb).

### **Adverbs and Verbs**


**διδάσκω** *teach, instruct*

#### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**




1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

τῷ ξένῷ δεῖ ἀκολουθέειν τοῖς ἐπιχωρίοις νόμοις.

τὸ τοῦ ποδὸς μὲν βραδύ· τὸ τοῦ δὲ νοῦ ταχύ.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

**Module 15 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

#### **Pronoun and Nouns**

**------, ἀλλήλων** *one another, each other* **ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς ἡ** *rule, command; beginning; province*  **γῆ, γῆς ἡ** *land, earth* **γένος, γένεος (γένους) τό** *race, kind, sort; birth, origin* **μήν, μηνός ὁ** *month*; (adv.) *truly, surely* **σῶμα, σώματος τό** *body* **χώρᾱ, χώρᾱς ἡ** *land, country* **Verb ἡγέομαι** *lead; believe*; *lead, command* + dat.

# **Etymology Corner XV by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 11, Parts of Speech

**Nouns, Pronouns, and Cases, cont.** As noted throughout Module 6, it's the endings that tell us what role a word takes in a sentence, *endings tell us who acts and who or what receives the action*. Why are these ending patterns called **cases**? I want you to picture an old analogue clock. On the big hand is the part of the noun or adjective that doesn't change, the stem or base. Instead of numbers you have each of the case endings, Nominative singular, Genitive singular, Dative singular, Accusative singular, Vocative singular, Nominative plural, etc. As the stem clicks from one to the next, you might describe the motion as **falling** around the wheel. The Latin for **fall** is **casus** (like a **casualty** is someone who has *fallen* in battle), hence **case**. Likewise the Greek for **fall** is **πτῶσις**, the word the Greeks used for **case**. Pretty dumb, right? It's dumb but internally consistent. In fact, when you describe the process of linking the stem with its ending, you call it **declining** a noun or adjective. This makes sense because the noun is *leaning* **clinare** (**κλίνειν** like we saw with **enclitic** and **proclitic**) *away from* **de** as it goes through the cases. The specific pattern a noun or adjective uses is called a **declension** because it contains all the endings, or all the *leanings away* (**de + clinare**).

**What to Study and Do 15.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have learned how to place words in attributive and predicate position.

**Learning Tip 15: Be Flexible, Letting Go of Dogma and Rigidity.** Deep learning involves letting go of the dogma and rigidity of the old conceptual system to make way for the new. Don't be dogmatic. Rules are not binding. Two cases will never be the same. Guidelines are the best we can do in a world where nothing is certain or exactly repeatable. Stay in the moment. With continued work you will let go of your old habitual ways of thinking and allow for new insights and knowledge that will in turn prepare you for ever new and exhilarating possibilities. Consider each of the words below, noting the Greek word, its English equivalent, the conventional spelling, and the exact transliterations of the Greek word.



Though change, choice, and diversity are crucial to this textbook's moral compass and inevitable in life, tradition is strong and not without value. The probability of the exact transliterations from Greek to English—**aggelos, egkomion, kogkhe, larugx, mousa, khoros**—gaining traction so that they are used by English speakers are slim. Choose, nevertheless, to buck the norms, using the exact transliterations if you dare.

# Module 16 **Second Declension Nouns**

# **Nouns**

Nouns in Greek are defined just like nouns are in English; but the way they create meaning is different. As in English, Greek nouns (**ὀνόματα**) refer to people, places, things, and ideas. Greek nouns have endings. English nouns can change form when they show possession, as in **Jada's book**, where the **'s** is added as a suffix and indicates that the book belongs to Jada. English nouns also change form when expressing the plural: two **suns**, three **oxen**, four **mice**. The endings on Greek nouns, as we have seen previously, create the same meanings that English does through form change, word order, and the use of prepositional phrases.

# **Second Declension Nouns**

The nominative singular of nouns of the second declension ends in **-ος** or **–ον**. Most second declension nouns whose nominative ends in **-ος** are masculine in gender and a few are feminine. Second declension nouns whose nominative ending is **–ον** are neuter in gender. Memorize these endings, know how to obtain the noun's stem, and know how to decline the nouns.

# **Declining Second Declension Nouns in** -ος or -ον

To decline second declension noun endings in **-ος** or **–ον**, first get the stem by removing the genitive singular ending. For sets 7 and 8, the genitive singular ending is **-ου**. For sets 9 and 10, the genitive singular ending is **-ος**. For sets 1 and 2, the genitive singular is **-ης** or **-ᾱς**. What remains is the stem. To the stem add the following endings:


# ἥλιος, ἡλίου, ἀδελφός, ἀδελφοῦ, ἔργον, ἔργου

To decline the noun **ἥλιος, ἡλίου ὁ** *sun*, take the genitive singular **ἡλίου**, remove the genitive singular ending **-ου** to get the stem: **ἡλί-,** and add the masculine/ feminine endings from above.

To decline **ἀδελφός, ἀδελφοῦ ὁ** *brother*, take the genitive singular **ἀδελφοῦ**, remove the genitive singular ending **-ου** to get the stem: **ἀδελφ-**, and add the masculine/feminine endings from above.

To decline **ἔργον, ἔργου τό** *work*, take the genitive singular **ἔργου**, remove the genitive singular ending **-ου** to get the stem: **ἔργ-**, and add the neuter endings from above.




#### **Plural**


### **ἥλιος:**


### **ἀδελφός:**


### **ἔργον:**


**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below adapted from the prologue of Euripides' *Bakkhai* (**Βάκχαι**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Note that the third declension increases the number of possible endings for the nominative singular. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.


ἥκω Δι*ὸς* παῖ**ς** τὴν Θηβαί*ων* χθόνα, Διόνυσ**ος**. ἐμὲ μὲν τίκτει ποθ' **ἡ** Κάδμ*ου* κόρ**η**, Σεμέλ**η**· ἐμὲ δὲ ἀστραπηφόρ**ον** λοχεύει πῦ**ρ**. μορφὴν δ' ἀμείβω ἐκ θε*οῦ* βροτείαν· ὁράω δὲ μητρ*ὸς* μνῆμα καὶ δόμ*ων* ἐρείπια. τ**ὰ** δὲ ἔτι τύφεται, Δί*ου* πυρ*ὸς* φλό**ξ**, ἀθάνατ**ος** Ἥρ*ας* μητέρα εἰς ἐμὴν ὕβρ**ις**. αἰνέω δὲ Κάδμον. **ὁ δὲ** γὰρ ἄβατον τὸ πέδον τίθησι, θυγατρ*ὸς* σηκόν. λείπω δὲ ἐγὼ Λυδ*ῶν* γύας Φρυγ*ῶν* τε, Περσ*ῶν* τε πλάκας Βάκτριά τε τείχη τήν τε χθόνα Μήδ*ων*. καὶ δὲ ἐπέρχομαι Ἀραβίαν τ' Ἀσίαν τε. **ἡ** δὲ Ἀσί**α** παρ' ἅλα κεῖται καὶ ἔχει μιγάδας Ἕλλησι βαρβάροις θ' ὁμοῦ πόλεις. ἐκεῖ μὲν ἤδη χορεύω καὶ καθίστημι τὰς τελετάς. ἐγὼ δὲ νῦν ἔρχομαι εἰς Ἑλλήν*ων* πόλιν ὅτι εἰμὶ ἐμφαν**ὴς** δαίμ**ων** βροτοῖς. πρώτας δὲ θήβας τ*ῆς* γ*ῆς* Ἑλληνίδ*ος* ἀνολολύζω, καὶ νεβρίδα ἐξάπτω χρο*ὸς* θύρσον τε δίδωμι ἐς χεῖρα, κίσσινον βέλος.

### **Adverbs and Verbs**


**\*ἥκω** *have come, be present*

#### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**




1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentence found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

καὶ νεβρίδα ἐξάπτω χροὸς θύρσον τε δίδωμι ἐς χεῖρα, κίσσινον βέλος.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

## **Classics and Our Modern World: Tom Palaima**

In his article "Songs of the 'Hard Traveler' from Odysseus to the Never-Ending Tourist," Classicist and professor Tom Palaima studies themes connected with traveling and existing away from home from the *Iliad* and *Odyssey* of Homer through the modern folk song tradition as performed and transformed by Bob Dylan, including songs by the Stanley Brothers, Charley Patton, Skip James, Muddy Waters, Stephen F. Foster, Martin Carthy and Dionysis Savvopoulos. Ancient Greek serves as the first recorded examples of songs exploring these experiences.

To read the article, follow this link:

Songs of the Hard Traveler. 1

**Module 16 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

**Nouns**

**ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ** *human, person* **ἔργον, ἔργου τό** *deed, task, work; building*; **ἔργον** *in truth, in deed* **θεός, θεοῦ ἡ ὁ** *god, goddess, deity* **λόγος, λόγου ὁ** *word, speech, story; reason, account* **νόμος, νόμου ὁ** *law, custom* **πόλεμος, πολέμου ὁ** *war* **χρόνος, χρόνου ὁ** *time* **Verb νομίζω** *believe, think, have the custom of, hold as custom*

# **Etymology Corner XVI by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 12, Parts of Speech

**Nouns, Pronouns, and Cases, cont.** We met the root of **nominative** in the previous section on **nouns**, because a **nomen** is a *name* (**ὄνομα).** The **nominative case** *names* the subject of the sentence. One specific type of nominative that we meet frequently when translating is the **predicate nominative**, or the *naming* of the thing that you are talking about, from the Latin prefix **prae** *before* and verb **dicere** *to say* (like **dictation** the taking down of what someone *says* or **dictator** whose *statements* are law). In addition to the frequently occurring predicate nominative, we will often meet **predicate adjectives,** which also *name* the thing you are talking about. In Greek grammar **ὄνομα** was used to refer to the parts of speech of both nouns and adjectives because both *name* what you are talking about. Greek for the nominative case was called **ὀρθὴ πτῶσι**ς the *upright, standing* or *not falling case*. Remember the hands of the clock.

<sup>1</sup> http://sites.utexas.edu/tpalaima/files/2017/11/SONGS\_OF\_THE\_HARD\_TRAVELER\_FROM\_ ODYSSEUS.pdf.

**What to Study and Do 16.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have memorized ending sets 7 and 8 for second declension nouns and that you can decline these nouns from memory.

**Learning Tip 16: Learn How to Follow and to Break Rules.** During the past 500 years our world has seen rapid technological changes. These changes require us to adapt constantly. Constant change is our new normal. Luckily one of our strengths is our ability to learn and to adapt. Learning new information requires basic rule-based thinking (continuous or algorithmic) and deep thinking (discontinuous or creative) that allows us to understand in novel ways. As you learn ancient Greek, think about what you are learning from both perspectives, allowing for an analytical understanding of language and for a conceptual understanding that requires going beyond linking a verb to its subject. Reflect on your learning of accents and the factual information required for you to learn so as to be able to accent correctly and with confidence. As you apply this knowledge and come to understand it at a deeper level, note how the conceptual application of knowledge becomes factual. To facilitate your assimilation of new information, try using your body as a memory palace. In this variation your body serves as the long-term storage facility for remembering new information. Let's imagine that we wish to remember the eight parts of speech and their definitions, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, conjunctions, verbs, prepositions, adverbs, interjections.

We will begin at our feet and move up to our head. Our feet stand on a **house**, which represents **nouns.** Our house is filled with **people**, with maps of many different **places**, and the people in it are discussing many **things** and **ideas**. The **house** our feet are standing upon represents the definition **person**, **place**, **thing**, **idea**. On our knees a wide variety of people—**he, she, they**—are jostling each other, trying to take their place in line. The **hes** and **shes** of the people represent pronouns and the **trying to take their place in line** represents the definition of pronouns **taking the place of nouns**. On our thighs are oodles of crayons. The crayons speak colorfully and are describing the people on our knees, giving us information on the wide variety of different complexions and eye and hair colors among the people taking their place in line on our knees—beige, black, brown, green, pale, red, white, yellow. The crayons remind us that adjectives **describe** nouns. On our hips is a belt made out of safety pins. Each safety pin **connects** to the next, reminding us that conjunctions join one item to another. The pins make a belt that keeps our pants secure to our hips. Conjunctions join our thoughts, keeping them connected. Next is our stomach. Our stomach is our core. Our core is the foundation of **movement** and **existence**, enabling us to rise, jump, turn, and twist. Our stomach represents the qualities of **action** and **existence** that define **verbs**. In our right hand we hold an open umbrella. We stand under the umbrella. **Our position of standing under the umbrella** reminds us that **prepositions** are small words that require an **object** to complete their meaning. We are **positioned under** the **object umbrella**. **Under** is the preposition. The **umbrella**

completes the meaning of a **prepositional phrase** by serving as the **object** of the preposition **under**. Our mouth exclaims delight at our ability to move outside into the rain without getting wet. Our mouth expresses satisfaction, by exclaiming, "ah," as we dance in the rain and are kept dry by standing **under** our amazingly effective **umbrella**. The word **ah** is what we interject to express our delight. **Ah** is called an **interjection**. As we **interject** "**ah**," our eyes look over our body parts, noticing the people standing in line on our knees. Some are standing **quietly**. Some are standing **really quietly**. Others are **very** loud. Our eyes take note that **adverbs** give **ad**ditional information about verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. This body palace is just one more technique that you can apply the **SEE** principle to so as to place items quickly into your medium term memory. Remember that you will still have to review this information so as to remember it for the long term. Also remember to have fun using your imagination to create memorable information that you wish to make a part of your identity.

# Module 17 **The Future Indicative and Infinitive Active of** ἔχω**,** ἐλαύνω**,** ἔρχομαι **and the Dynamic Infinitive**

# **The Verb**

In Greek and in English, verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs are words that represent actions (**throw**) and states of being (**be** or **exist**). They differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English does not. The Greek verb **(ῥῆμα)** in its finite form has an **ending** that indicates what **person** and **number** the **subject** is. The Greek infinitive has an ending that indicates that it is unmarked for **person** and **number**.

# **The Future Indicative Active**

The future tense refers to actions that will occur in the future. The future tense stems have a temporal value but no aspect, showing no distinction between the imperfective (incomplete) and perfective (completed) aspect (*CGCG* 33.4–6). To review what is meant by the aspect of verbs, reread **Verb Tense-Aspect** in Module 9.

# **Future Tense Stems**

To obtain the future tense stem remove the ending from the second principal part. What remains is the future active and middle tense stem. To this stem, add the future tense endings.

### **Future Tense Endings**

Add to the correct tense stem.

**Primary Active** (use for the present and future active tenses)

**S Pl 1st** -ω -ομεν **2nd** -εις -ετε **3rd** -ει -ουσι (ν)

**Infinitive Active** (use for the present and future active tenses)



**Primary Middle and Passive** (use to form the active voice of deponent verbs)


**Infinitive Active** (use to form the active voice of deponent verbs)



# **The Conjugation of** ἔχω

All **ω-verbs** combine their stems and endings just as **ἔχω** does. In the readings that follow, use your knowledge of **ἔχω** to recognize and translate the forms of other **ω-verbs**.

# **Future Indicative Active of** ἔχω

To the future active and middle tense stems **ἕξ-** or **σχήσ-**, add the correct endings.


# **Future Infinitive Active of** ἔχω

To the future active and middle tense stems **ἕξ-** or **σχήσ-**, add **ειν**.

ἕξειν or σχήσειν *to be about to have* unmarked

1. Only the tense stem distinguishes the future indicative active from the present indicative active. Contrast the present stem of **ἔχ**ω with the future stem of **ἕξ**ω and **σχήσ**ω.

# **The Conjugation** ἐλαύνω, ἐλάω

**ἐλάω** is referred to as a contract **ω-verb** because its stem ends in alpha in the first person singular, future indicative active of the second principal part. When the stem of principal part I or II ends in alpha, the alpha may contract with the endings in accordance with the chart below. In the readings that follow, use your knowledge of **ἐλάω** to recognize and translate the forms of other alpha contract ω-verbs.


# **Future Indicative Active of** ἐλαύνω, ἐλάω

To the future active and middle tense stem **ἐλα-**, add the correct endings.


# **Future Infinitive Active of** ἐλαύνω, ἐλάω

To the future active and middle tense stem **ἐλα-**, add **ειν**.

ἐλᾶν (ἐλάειν < ἐλάεεν) *to be about to* 

*march*

unmarked

# **The Conjugation of** ἔρχομαι

**Deponent ω-verbs** are similar to **ω-verbs** except that they have middle and passive forms but active meanings. All **deponent ω-verbs** form their present and future indicative actives just as **ἔρχομαι** does. In the readings that follow, use your knowledge of **ἔρχομαι** to recognize and translate the forms of other deponent **ω-verbs**.

# **Future Indicative of** ἔρχομαι

To the future tense stem **ἐλεύσ-**, add the correct endings.


# **Future Infinitive of** ἔρχομαι

To the future tense stem **ἐλεύσ-**, add -**εσθαι.**

ἐλεύσεσθαι *to be about to go* unmarked

# **The Infinitive**

Remember that in English and in Greek the infinitive is unmarked for person and for number. Ιt is classified as a verbal noun and is best understood by thinking of its function as completing or enhancing the meaning of adjectives, clauses, nouns, and verbs. This is why the infinitive is referred to as complement. Sometimes classified as a mood, the infinitive is potential in meaning, **ἐν δυνάμει,** because its action may or may not be realized. There are two types of infinitives, the declarative and the dynamic. Both the declarative and the dynamic infinitives refer to actions that exist **potentially** or **ἐν δυνάμει**.

### **The Dynamic Infinitive**

The dynamic infinitive refers to actions that exist potentially, **ἐν δυνάμει**. It is negated by the abverb **μή** *not* and not **οὐ** *not*. For more on the **dynamic infinitive**, see *CGCG* 51. Consider its use as a complement in these examples.

#### 1. As a complement to modal verbs:


#### 2. As a complement to verbs of wishing and desiring:


#### 3. As a complement to knowledge verbs:


#### 4. As a complement to verbs of command, compulsion, and persuasion:


### 5. As a complement to verbs of starting and stopping:


#### 6. Epexegetically as a complement to adjectives and nouns:


7. As a complement of purpose often with verbs of giving, motion, receiving, and taking:


**Practice Translating the Infinitive.** Translate each of the below, which have been adapted from folk songs and a variety of ancient Greek writers. Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

**Praxilla of Sikyon, Πράξιλλα Σικυών c. 451 BCE.** Praxilla was a Greek lyric poet of high renown. Only a few fragments of her work have survived. Antipater of Thessalonike (c. 15 BCE) lists her as one of the nine immortal-tongued female poets. Aristophanes parodies her in two of his comedies. The famous sculptor Lysippos (c. 350 BCE) sculpted her in bronze.

**Athenaios of Naukratis, Ἀθήναιος ὁ Nαυκρατίτης, c. 190 CE.** Athenaios was a Greek rhetorician and grammarian. His fifteen-volume *Scholars at Dinner,* **Δειπνοσοφισταί,** on the art of dining, mostly survives. Among other things, the work provides information about Greek literature, quoting from the works of about 700 Greek authors and 2,500 different works. Topics discussed in the volumes include, art, food, music, philology, sex, and wine.

**Julian, Flavius Claudius Julianus, c. 331 CE.** Julian was Roman emperor from 361 to 363 CE. He was also a philosopher and author of many works written in Greek. About fifteen have survived. Julian rejected Christianity and promoted Neoplatonic Hellenism. For this the Christian Church named him Julian the Apostate. His work, *The Caesars*, quoted below, was a satire that describes Roman emperors vying for the title of best emperor.



#### **Adverbs and Verbs**



*command*

#### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**



1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below adapted from Euripides' *Bakkhai* (**Βάκχαι**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Nominative case endings are bolded; genitive endings are italicized; dative endings are highlighted; and accusative endings are underlined. Note that the third declension increases the number of possible endings for the nominative singular. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.


**Διόνυσος:** ἀδελφ**αὶ** μητρ*ὸς* φάσκουσιν ὅτι Διόνυσ**ος** οὐκ ἐκφύει Δι*ός* ἀλλὰ ἐκ θνητ*οῦ* καὶ ὅτι **ἡ** Σεμέλ**η** ἐς Ζῆν' ἀναφέρει τὴν ἁμαρτίαν λέχ*ους*. αὐτὴν **αἱ** ἀδελφ**αὶ** ἐκκαυχάονται ὅτι κτείνει Ζ**εὺς** ἀστραπηφόρῳ πυρὶ ὅτι γάμους ψεύδει. τοιγὰρ αὐτὰς ἐκ δόμ*ων* οἰστράω ἐγὼ μανίαις. ὄρος δ' οἰκέουσι παράκοπ**οι** φρεν*ῶν*. σκευήν τ' ἔχειν αὐτὰς ἀναγκάζω ὀργί*ων* ἐμ*ῶν*. τὸ θῆλυ σπέρμα Καδμεί*ων*, ὅσ**αι** γυναῖκ**ές** εἰσι, ἐκμαίνω δωμάτ*ων*. ὁμοῦ δὲ Κάδμ*ου* παισὶν ἀναμείγνυνται καὶ χλωραῖς ὑπ' ἐλάταις ἀνορόφοις ἧνται πέτραις. δεῖ γὰρ τὴν ἀτέλεστον τ*ῶν* πόλιν βακχευμάτ*ων* ἐκμανθάνειν, καὶ εἰ μὴ θέλει, ὅτι **ἡ** Σεμέλ**η** ἐμὲ τίκτει Διί, ἐμφανῆ θνητοῖς δαίμονα.

### **Adverbs and Verbs**


### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**




1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give the case and function. For verbs, give the person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

Ῥέα ἐν Φρυγίᾳ μὲν τοὺς Κορύβαντας ὀρχέεσθαι πείθει.

αὐτὴν αἱ ἀδελφαὶ ἐκκαυχάονται ὅτι κτείνει Ζεὺς ἀστραπηφόρῳ πυρὶ ὅτι γάμους ψεύδει.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

## **Papyrology**

Papyrus, **πάπυρος**, is paper made from the papyrus plant. Ancient Egyptians used this plant to make reed boats, mats, rope, sandals, and baskets. They used papyrus paper to write down many things, including lists, records, and literary works. They also used it to wrap mummies. In hot and dry climates, papyrus survives, offering us a window into the past. Papyrologists study the writings these papyri record. Module 30 offers a recently discovered poem by Sappho, preserved on papyrus.

**Module 17 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

**Nouns**

**ἀριθμός, ἀριθμοῦ ὁ** *number* **βίος, βίου ὁ** *life*

**δίκη, δίκης ἡ** *custom, usage; judgment; order, right; penalty, sentence; lawsuit* **Verbs ἀδικέω, ἀδικήσω** *be unjust, do wrong* **αἱρέω, αἱρήσω** *take, seize, grab, capture*; (mid.) *choose* **γιγνώσκω, γνώσομαι** *know, recognize; decide +* inf. **ἐλαύνω, ἐλάω** *drive, march* **κελεύω, κελεύσω** *bid, order, command*

# **Etymology Corner XVII by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 13, Parts of Speech

**Nouns, Pronouns, and Cases, cont.** In Greek the genitive is called **γενική πτῶσις** a *case* that indicates a belonging to the **γένος** *kind, type*, *origin*, *source*. The etymology of the **genitive** is a bit screwed up because the Latin grammarians didn't fully understand Greek grammar. Nonetheless, if we think of **genus** in **genus** and **species**, meaning a *kind* or *class* or *clan*, it will get us most of the way there. Genitives tell us about possession or source or type, so, Jayden's gloves, or a piece of pie, or a loaf of bread specify whose glove or what kind of piece or loaf it is.

**What to Study and Do 17.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have learned the endings for the future indicative and infinitive active of **ἔχω** and **ἔρχομαι** and that you can conjugate these verb forms. Make sure that you can identify a verb by person, number, tense, mood, and voice. Finally, make sure that you understand the function of the dynamic infinitive.

**Learning Tip 17: Memorize Word for Word.** You can use the memory palace technique to memorize poems, short stories, novels, and even complete dictionaries. Want to memorize the *Oxford English Dictionary* or Liddell and Scott's *Greek Lexicon*? Try using this learning tip for memorizing a poem by Robert Frost. You can use this same technique for memorizing works of any length. Conversely you can use repetition to fix this poem in your memory. Repetition is time-consuming and its results do not necessarily last long, unless you continue to repeat the poem for an extended period. As an alternative to repetition, try using the memory palace and **SEE** strategies. Both methods require repetition and review. The memory place and **SEE** strategies are longer-lasting and easier to recall. Note the highlighted words:

**Whose woods these are** I think I know. **His house is in the village** though; **He will not see me** stopping here

To **watch his woods fill up with snow**.

**My little horse must think** it **queer**  To **stop without a farmhouse** near **Between** the **woods and frozen lake** The **darkest evening** of the year.

He gives his **harness bells a shake** To ask if there is **some mistake**. The only other **sound's the sweep** Of **easy wind and downy flake**.

The **woods are lovely, dark and deep**, But I have **promises to keep**, And **miles to go before I sleep**, And **miles to go before I sleep**.

On the grille of our car, we place **woods** with an owl perched on a tree, crying **who, who**. On the hood we place a **house** located in a small **village**. At the electric car charging port we place a big round eye which **sees** me and has red **knotted** veins popping out. In the driver's seat is a big paper trashbag with woods drawn on it and **filling up with snow**. The trash bag is wearing a giant **watch** around its waist. On the dash is a little **horse**, prancing about and wearing a **lightbulb** for a hat. The **horse** calls out in a **hoarse** voice, **queer, queer, queer**. In the passenger's seat is an empty field of snow with a big red **zero** melting into the snow. In the middle of the zero is the roof of a collapsed **farmhouse.** Attached to the rooftop is a **stop** sign. **Between** the seats is a console, made out of sweet-smelling cherry **wood** and filled with **frozen ice**. On the floor of the backseat is a flashlight peering up at the **dark** roof from which an **even**ly balanced scale hangs. The trunk is filled with liberty **bells**, held together with **harnesses**, and **shak**ing so much that their cracks are widening. At the back bumper is a car jack with a **stake** for a lever. The jack is **mis**placed and unable to lift the car. Up the tailpipe climbs a chimney **sweep** making a **sweep**ing **sound** as he cleans the outside of the pipe. Out of the tailpipe are blowing an **easy wind** and **downy** feathers and **flake**s of cereal. On one bumper sticker are the words **love** trumps hate and on another **dark** lives matter and on a third **Deep** Purple. The license plate has the word **promises** with a picture of two entwined rings. On the rubber of one of the wheels is written in red the words lifetime warranty and unlimited **miles**. Pay attention to how long it takes you to commit the poem to memory. Also note how easy it is to recall the poem verbatim. Try recalling the poem the next day to see how much you have remembered. Try again in a week and then again in a month. Enjoy knowing that you can memorize anything and carry it with you for as long as you wish.

# Module 18 **The Personal Pronouns;** εἷς**,**  οὐδείς**, and** μηδείς**; the Dative and Accusative of Respect; Time Expressions**

# **Pronouns**

In both languages, pronouns have the same definition: they take the place of nouns. The function of the Greek pronoun (**ἀντωνυμία**) differs from the English because it creates meaning through case endings much more extensively than the English pronoun does. In both languages the personal pronouns refer to the first person **I** and **we,** the second person **you**, and the third person **he**, **she**, **it**, and **they**.

# **The English Personal Pronoun**

In English the forms of the first person personal pronoun are the following:


**I** and **we** are the subjective forms. **Me** and **us** are the objective forms. **Mine** and **ours** are the possessive forms. Note that they are different from the possessive adjectives **my** and **our**. Contrast the possessive pronoun **mine** in the sentence '**the book is mine**' with the possessive adjectve **my** in the phrase '**my book**'.

The forms of the second person are the following:


Note that the subjective and objective forms are identical in the singular and plural forms. Note also that the possessive pronoun **yours** is different from the possessive adjective **your**. Contrast the possessive pronoun **yours** in the sentence '**the dog is yours**' with the possessive adjective **your** in the phrase '**your dog**'.

The forms for the third person plural are the following:


**He**, **she**, **it** and **they** are subjective; **him**, **her**, **it** and **them** are objective; and **his**, **hers**, **its** and **theirs** are possessive. Note that the possessive pronoun **hers** and **theirs** differ from the possessive adjectives **her** and **their**. Contrast the possessive pronoun **theirs** in the sentence '**the choice is theirs**' with the possessive adjective **their** in the phrase '**their choice**'. The possessive pronouns **his** and **its** are look-a-like forms and identical to their adjectival forms **his** and **its**. Contrast the use of the possessive pronoun **his** in the sentence '**the opportunity is his**' with the possessive adjective **his** in the phrase '**his opportunity**'. In the case of **his** and **its**, function allows you to determine which part of speech occurs.

**Practice Identifying the Personal Pronoun and Adjectives in English.** Pick out the personal pronouns and the personal possesssive adjectives. The excerpts are from Billie Holiday's autobiography, *Lady Sings the Blues* (1956). Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.


## **The Greek Personal Pronoun**

Memorize these forms of the personal pronoun.


**2nd Person** (*you, you, yours*)



#### **Possessive Adjectives:**


#### **αὐτός** *he,* **αὐτή** *she,* **αὐτό** *it*

**3rd Person** (*he, him, his; she, her, hers; it, it, its; they, them, theirs*)



### **σφεῖς** *they*, **σφέα** *they*

#### **3rd Person Plural** (*they, them, theirs*)


#### **3rd Person Plural Contracted Forms** (*they, them, theirs*)


#### **3rd Person Plural** (*they, them, theirs*)


#### **3rd Person Plural Contracted Forms** (*they, them, theirs*)


1. The unaccented forms are enclitic. Enclitics are pronounced closely with the word that precedes them. Some common ones are the adverbs **γε, ποθέν, ποι, ποτέ, που, πως,** and **τοι**; the conjunction **τε;** the pronouns **με, μοι, μου, σε, σοι σου, τι,** and **τις;** and the verbs **εἰμί,**

**φημί**. Enclitics sometimes have an accent and sometimes do not. They can also affect the accent of the word that precedes them. How they do is covered in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

2. For the third person plural pronoun Herodotos and writers of the Ionic dialect regularly use **σφεῖς**. In the Attic dialect, for the third person writers use the pronouns **αὐτός, ὅδε,** and **οὗτος**, presented in Module 20.

#### **Possessive Adjectives:**

σφέτερος, σφετέρᾱ, σφέτερον: *their*

### **Adjectives and Pronouns**

Remember that adjectives agree in gender, case, and number with the nouns they modify. If no noun is present, supply the appropriate noun based upon the adjective's gender and number or upon context. Adjectives that function as nouns are referred to as substantive adjectives. Pronouns take the place of nouns. Otherwise they function just as other Greek nouns do.

### εἷς; οὐδείς; and μηδείς

These forms can be adjectives, modifying nouns, or they can be pronouns taking the place of nouns. Their function in a sentence determines their identity.

#### **εἷς, μία, ἕν** *one*


#### **οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν** *no one, nothing*



**εἷς, μία, ἕν** *one*


#### **οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν** *no one, nothing*

**Singular M F N N** οὐδείς οὐδεμία οὐδέν **Singular M F N N** μηδείς μηδεμία μηδέν

**μηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν** *no one, nothing*


1. Like **μή** and **οὐ**, **οὐδείς**, **οὐδεμία**, **οὐδέν** and **μηδείς**, **μηδεμία**, **μηδέν** mean the same thing: *no one, nothing*. It is generally the case that **οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν** is found in factual situations and **μηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν** in hypothetical ones.

**Practice Translating Personal Pronouns and Adjectives.** Practice translating this slightly adapted poem of Sappho. Note that in the below the noun, pronoun, and adjective endings are not marked and will not be in subsequent modules. Use your memory to identify endings and their meanings. If you forget, consult the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII and the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.


6. σὲ κάλοι δέ ἄγουσιν στροῦθοι.

7. σὺ δ᾿, ὦ Αφροδίτη, μειδιάεις ἀθανάτῳ προσώπῳ;

8. ἔρῃ τί δηὖτε κάλημμί σε;

9. ἔρῃ ὅτι μοι μάλιστα θέλω γένεσθαι θυμῷ;

10.ἔρῃ τίνα δηὖτε πείθω ἄψ σε ἄγειν ἐς φιλότητα;

11.τίς σε, ὦ Ψάπφ᾿, ἀδικέει;

12.καὶ γὰρ εἰ φεύγει, κελεύω αὐτὴν ταχέως διώκειν.

13.εἰ δὲ δῶρα μὴ δέχεται ἐκ σοῦ, ἀλλὰ ἐγὼ κελεύω αὐτῇ διδόναι σοί.

14.εἰ δὲ μὴ φιλέει, ἐγὼ κελεύω αὐτὴν ταχέως φιλέειν καὶ εἰ μὴ ἐθέλει.

15.ἐμὲ δεῖ χαλεπῶν λύειν ἐκ μερίμνων.

16.ὅτι δέ μοι τελέειν θυμὸς ἱμείρει, βούλομαί σε τελέειν.

17.σὺ δὲ σύμμαχος ἐμὸς εἶ.

### **Vocabulary**



**θυμός, θυμοῦ ὁ** *soul, spirit; passion, heart, will, desire*

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

# **The Dative and Accusative of Respect**

To state the respect in which a statement is true, you use the dative or accusative case without a preposition. Consider these two examples:

1. πόδας ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς,

*Achilleus, swift in respect to his feet;* or *swift-footed Achilleus*;

2. νοῦν ὠκὺς Ὅμηρος,

*Homer, swift in respect to his mind;*

or *Homer of the swift mind.*

Note that both **πόδας** *foot* and **νοῦν** *mind* are in the accusative case. This function of the accusative we call an accusative of respect. These nouns can also be in the dative case:

1. πόσιν ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς,

*Achilleus, swift in respect to his feet;* or *swift-footed Achilleus*;

2. νόῳ ὠκὺς Ὅμηρος,

*Homer, swift in respect to his mind;* or *Homer of the swift mind.*

Note that there is no difference in meaning.

**Practice Translating the Dative and Accusative of Respect.** Translate and check your understanding with the answers below.


### **Translations.**


### **Time Expressions**

**Duration of Time.** We already have seen that **duration of time** and **extent of space** in Greek are expressed by the accusative case typically without a preposition: *for five days* = **πέντε ἡμέρας**; *for five stades* = **πέντε στάδια**.

**Time When.** To express **time when**, use the dative case typically without a preposition: *on the next day* = **τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ ἡμέρᾳ**. Often the noun **ἡμέρᾳ** is omitted because it is implied. And so **τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ** by itself can mean *on the next day*.

**Time Within Which.** To express **time within which**, use the genitive case typically without a preposition: *within five days* = **πέντε ἡμερῶν**.

**Practice Translating Time Phrases.** Translate the below into ancient Greek and check your understanding with the answers below.


## **Black Humor and Euripides' Alkestis**

Black humor is the comic treatment of material that is serious—cruelty, death, genocide, murder, rape, torture—to create meaning. Like the Blues and life, black humor is a mixed-up thing. In his modest proposal Jonathan Swift uses black humor to fight against inequity, injustice, and prejudice. In *The Things They Carried*, Tim O'Brien argues that the brutality of war necessitates a black comic response. Barack Obama argues that calamities require us to respond with calm and optimism, a sense of humor, and sometimes gallows humor. Flannery O'Connor writes that everything funny she has written is more terrible than it is funny, or only funny because it is terrible, or only terrible because it is funny. In doing so she is inextricably linking horror with humor, just as pain and pleasure are linked. Euripides also links the two in his comic tragedies and does so to a great extent in his play the *Alkestis*, **Ἄλκηστις,** which was performed in the position of the satyr play, typically defined by its bawdy, comic, and ribald features. Though Euripides' *Alkestis* lacks the sexual humor of the satyr play, it maintains a steady black comic gaze on the tragedy of death, greed, and selfishness.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below adapted from Euripides' *Alkestis* (**Ἄλκηστις**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

Note that in the below the noun, pronoun, and adjective endings are not marked and will not be in subsequent modules. Use your memory to identify endings and their meanings. If you forget, consult the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII and the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I.

**Θάνατος:** ἡ δὲ ὑφίσταται πόσιν ἐκλύειν καὶ προθανεῖν, Πελίου παῖς. καίτοι νῦν δὲ σὺ φρουρεῖς;

**Ἀπόλλων:** δεῖ σοὶ θαρσεῖν· δίκην σοι καὶ λόγους κεδνοὺς ἔχω.

**Θάνατος:** τί δῆτα τόξων ἔργον, εἰ δίκην ἔχεις;

**Ἀπόλλων:** σύνηθες αἰεὶ ταῦτα βαστάζειν ἐμοί.


### **Adverbs, Conjunctions, and Verbs**


**\*βούλομαι, βουλήσομαι** *want, prefer; wish, be willing* **\*λαβεῖν** *to take*

**\*δεῖ** *it is necessary + 'x'* in gen. or dat. or acc. + inf., **δεῖ ἐλθεῖν** *it is necessary to come*

**νοσφίζω, νοσφιέω** *turn away, shrink from*; *deprive* 'x' in acc. *of* 'y' in gen.


### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**



1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give the case and function. For verbs, give the person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

πάτρος δὲ δόμον λείπεις καὶ εἰς μὲ ἔρχῃ;

βούλῃ ἐμὲ μὴ κτείνειν αὐτοὺς δεῖ; καίτοι τοῦτο ἐμοὶ ἔργον.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

**Module 18 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

#### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**

**ἀδελφός, ἀδελφοῦ ὁ** *brother*

**ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῆς, ἑαυτοῦ** *himself, herself, itself*

**ἐγώ, ἐμοῦ** or **μου** *I, me, mine*

**εἷς, μία, ἕν; ἑνός, μιᾶς, ἑνός** *one* 

**μηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν; μηδένος, μηδεμιᾶς, μηδένος** (mostly found in hypothetical contexts) *no one, nothing*

**οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν; οὐδένος, οὐδεμιᾶς, οὐδένος** (mostly found in factual contexts) *no one, nothing*

**σύ, σοῦ** or **σου** *you, you, yours*

**σφεῖς, σφέα; σφέων (σφῶν), σφέων (σφῶν)** *they, them, theirs*

### **Etymology Corner XVIII by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 14, Parts of Speech

**Nouns, Pronouns, and Cases, cont.** The **dative** is easier, as **datum** means *a thing given* (the plural of this is **data**, or the *things given back* from the experiment), and datives deal for a large part with indirect objects, the person to or for whom a thing is given or an action done. In Greek the case is called the **δοτικὴ πτῶσις**, a case that indicates that something is *given* to or for someone.

The **accusative** looks for good reason like our word **accuse**, and means something like *the thing caused*, here the direct object of a transitive verb. In Greek the case is called the **αἰτιατικὴ πτῶσις,** a *case* that indicates the thing *caused* by the verb

The **vocative**, used for addressing someone, comes from the Latin verb **vocare** *to call*. So when you call out someone's name, put it in the *calling* case. In Greek **κλητικὴ πτῶσις** also means the *calling case*.

When looking at a noun's **gender**, we see a Latin transliteration, **genus**, of a Greek term **γένος,** which was used in ancient scientific texts to mark off different types and species, not just male and female. Our word **genre** comes from the same root and the same impulse, though today that's used mostly for distinguishing different *types* of literature and entertainment, as well as our word **generic** meaning something that belongs to a particular class or *type*.

We have discussed already the meaning of **pronoun**. In Modules 14 and 22, we learn two subtypes of **pronoun**, the **interrogative** and **relative pronouns**.

• If you are a fan of police procedurals, or have a nosy parent, you already are familiar with the English word **interrogation**. **Rogare** in Latin means *to ask*, so an **interrogative pronoun** sets up a *question*.

• A **relative** is a type of **pronoun** that *carries back* (-**lat**- is the perfect passive stem of **ferre**, *to carry*, and **refer** is etymologically related to *relate*) to an antecedent.

**What to Study and Do 18.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you understand the definition and function of a personal pronoun and personal adjective. Also memorize the pronouns this module introduces. In subsequent modules they are not glossed. Finally make sure that you understand the temporal functions of the genitive, dative, and accusative cases, and the dative and accusative of respect.

**Learning Tip 18: Use Language as One Way to Understand Your World.** Think about grammar as a conceptual system that enables us to understand how language works. Our current world has about 7000 languages. About half are in danger of disappearing and every two weeks one becomes extinct. We are moving toward less diversity in the languages we speak and toward a more global culture with fewer nation states. Though ancient Greek is dead (no longer actively spoken by a culture), we classicists keep it alive by using it as a means for exploring today's world and our place in it. Intense study of any subject enables similar explorations. The study of ancient Greek language and culture are the classicist's way of doing so. Non-wordbased languages also exist. Expressions, gestures, mathematics, memes, music, and painting are other languages with different grammatical structures. We employ these conceptual systems to think about what is real and meaningful and what is fake and superficial in the environments we inhabit.

# Module 19 οἶδα **and the Present and Future Indicative and Infinitive Middle and Passive of** ἐλαύνω, καλέω, φέρω, δίδωμι, τίθημι

# **The Verb**

In Greek and in English verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs are words that represent actions (**throw**) and states of being (**be** or **exist**). They differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English does not. The Greek verb (**ῥῆμα**) in its finite form has an **ending** that indicates what **person** and **number** the **subject** is. The Greek infinitive has an ending that indicates that it is unmarked for **person** and **number**.

# **The Conjugation of** οἶδα

**οἶδα** is a high frequency verb. It has perfect tense forms with present tense meanings. In Part II of the *21st-Century* series you will learn the perfect tense, which has an aspect that is complete (stative) as of present time. **oἶδα**'s forms are given below. Memorize them.

### **Perfect Indicative Active (with present meanings)**



#### **Perfect Infinitive Active (with present meanings)**


### **Active, Middle, and Passive Voice**

Active and passive voice in English and Greek are defined and function in the same way. Greek also has a middle voice. In practice it is generally a good idea to translate the middle voice as if it were active.

### **Active and Passive Voice**

In the active voice the subject of the verb performs the action: **I throw the ball**. The subject **I** is the one who throws the ball and so its voice is defined as active. In the passive voice the action of the verb is performed upon the subject: **I am thrown**. The **I** is not performing the action but rather the verb's action is performed upon the subject and so its voice is defined as passive.

**Apuleius from Madauros c. 124–170 CE.** A Numidian, Apuleius lived under the rule of the Roman Empire and wrote in Latin. He studied Platonism in Athens, travelled widely, was a rhetorician, and a follower of several mystery cults. At some point he was accused of using magic to gain the wealth of a widow. He declaimed and then distributed a witty defense speech, known as the *Apologia*, asserting his innocence. He also wrote the *Metamorphoses*, a Latin novel and the only one that has survived in its entirety. Like Lucian's *The Ass*, **ὁ Ὄνος**, it relates the adventures of Lucius, whose curiosity about magic results in his being turned into an ass. This book contains a small excerpt from Apuleius' novel and several from Lucian's.

**Practice Identifying Active and Passive Voice in English.** Consider the following examples. In each case, ask yourself whether the verb's voice is active or passive. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key. The selection below is an adapted translation of an excerpt from Apuleius, *The Golden Ass*.


### **Middle Voice**

Greek also has a middle voice. For most tenses the forms of the middle voice are similar or exactly the same as the forms for the passive voice. Though its forms are similar to the passive, the middle voice is typically translated by the English active voice. The Greek middle voice often has one of these two special meanings:

### **(1) subjects perform the action of the verb on themselves**

### **Example:**

**αὐτὸν λούω** *I wash him*; **λούομαι** *I wash myself*, i.e., I take a bath.

### **Example:**

**αὐτοὺς πείθω** *I persuade them*; **πείθομαι** *I persuade myself*, i.e., I listen or obey.

### **(2) subjects perform the action of the verb for their own benefit**

### **Example:**

**αὐτοὺς λύω** *I free them*; **αὐτοὺς λύομαι** *I free them* for my own benefit, i.e., I free them by paying ransom money.

### **Example:**

**αὐτοὺς παιδεύω** *I educate them*; **τοὺς παῖδας παιδεύομαι** *I have my children educated* for my own benefit.

### **Example:**

**ταῦτα φέρω** *I carry these things*; **φέρομαι** *I carry* for my own benefit, i.e., I win.

### **Example:**

**πολιτεύω** *I am a citizen*; **πολιτεύομαι** *I am a citizen* for my own benefit, i.e., I am a politician.

# **Primary Middle and Passive Endings**

The following primary middle and passive endings are used in forming many of the tenses you will learn for the middle and passive voices.

### **Primary Middle and Passive**


### **Middle and Passive Infinitive**


It is a good idea to memorize them now.

# **The Present and Future Indicative and Infinitive Middle and Passive of** ω-**verbs**

In what follows you have no new endings to memorize since you already learned them when you learned the **deponent ω-verb ἔρχομαι**.

# **How to Get the Correct Stem**

A key to learning the verb is understanding how to combine endings with the correct stem.

**Present Active, Middle, and Passive.** From the first principal part remove the ending to obtain the present active, middle, and passive tense stem. To this stem, add the below endings.

**Future Active and Middle.** From the second principal part remove the ending to obtain the future active and middle tense stem. To this stem, add the below endings.

**Future Passive.** From the sixth principal part remove the past indicative augment and the ending. In verbs whose stem begins with a consonant, the past indicative augment is the initial epsilon, **ἐ-**. The past indicative augment is explained in detail in Module 23. Το the stem that remains, add the future tense marker **–ησ-** to obtain the future passive tense stem. To this stem, add the below endings.

# **Primary Middle and Passive Endings**

Add to the correct stem.

### **Primary Middle and Passive**


**Middle and Passive Infinitive**

**Primary Middle and Passive S P** 


Note. When you learned the deponent verb, **ἔρχομαι**, you learned these endings.

#### **Endings in Summary** Remember that deponent verbs have middle and passive forms and active meanings. The chart below contains the same information as above. Look over the chart and make

The chart below contains the same information as above. Look over the chart and make sure that you understand how to read it. sure that you understand how to read it.



As mentioned already, a key to forming verbs correctly is learning how to attach the endings

#### **The Conjugation of** ἐλαυνω to the correct tense stem. Examples for how to do so are found below.

To the present active, middle, and passive stem, **ἐλαυν-**, add the correct present tense endings. To the future active and middle tense stem, **ἐλα-**, add the correct future tense endings. To the future passive tense stem, **ἐλαθησ-**, add the correct future tense endings. 222

### **Present Indicative Middle**


#### **Present Infinitive Middle**


#### **Present Indicative Passive**



#### **Present Infinitive Passive**


#### **Future Indicative Middle**



#### **Future Infinitive Middle**


#### **Future Indicative Passive**



#### **Future Infinitive Passive**

ἐλαθήσεσθαι *to be about to be driven* unmarked for person and #

# **The Conjugation of** καλέω

To the present active, middle, and passive stem, **καλε-**, add the correct present tense endings. To the future active and middle tense stem, **καλε-**, add the correct future tense endings. Since the stems for the present and future are the same, the forms are identical. Use context to determine which tense each form has. To the future passive tense stem, **κληθησ-**, add the correct future tense endings.

#### **Present Indicative Middle**


#### **Present Infinitive Middle**

καλεῖσθαι (καλέεσθαι) *to sue* unmarked for person

and #

#### **Present Indicative Passive**



#### **Present Infinitive Passive**


#### **Future Indicative Middle**


#### **Future Infinitive Middle**


#### **Future Indicative Passive**


#### **Future Infinitive Passive**


# **The Conjugation of** φέρω

To the present active, middle, and passive stem, **φερ-**, add the correct present tense endings. To the future active and middle tense stem, **οἰσ-**, add the correct future tense endings. To the future passive tense stem, **ἐνεχθησ-**, add the correct future tense endings.

### **Present Indicative Middle**


οἴσεται *he, she, it will win* 3rd person singular


#### **Future Infinitive Middle**


#### **Future Indicative Passive**


#### **Future Infinitive Passive**

# **The Conjugation of** δίδωμι

Add the primary middle and passive endings to the short vowel grade of the stem, **διδο-**.

#### **Primary Middle and Passive**


#### **Present Infinitive Middle and Passive**


#### **Present Indicative Middle**


#### **Present Infinitive Middle**


#### **Present Indicative Passive**


#### **Present Infinitive Passive**


#### **Future Indicative Middle**


δώσονται *they will devote* 3rd person plural

#### **Future Infinitive Middle**


#### **Future Indicative Passive**


### **Future Infinitive Passive**


# **The Conjugation of** τίθημι

Add the primary middle and passive endings to the short vowel grade of the stem, **τιθε-**.

### **Primary Middle and Passive**


### **Infinitive Middle and Passive**


### **Present Indicative Middle**

τίθεμαι *I set* 1st person singular


#### **Present Infinitive Middle**


#### **Present Indicative Passive**


#### **Present Infinitive Passive**


#### **Future Indicative Middle**


θήσονται *they will set* 3rd person plural

#### **Future Infinitive Middle**


#### **Future Indicative Passive**



#### **Future Infinitive Passive**


**Practice Translating Active and Passive Voice.** Translate the below. Pay particular attention to what voice each verb has. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.


#### **Vocabulary**



1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below adapted from Euripides' *Alkestis* (**Ἄλκηστις**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII and the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

**Ἀπόλλων:** ἔστ' οὖν Ἀλκήστιδι ἐς γῆρας μολέεσθαι;

**Θάνατος:** οὐκ ἔστι· τιμαῖς καὶ ἐμὲ τέρπεσθαι δεῖ.

**Ἀπόλλων:** οὔτοι πλέον γ' ἢ μίαν ψυχὴν λήψει.

**Θάνατος:** ἐπεὶ νέοι φθίνoυσι, μεῖζον ἄρνυμαι γέρας.


**Θάνατος:** ἡ δ' οὖν γυνὴ κατελεύσεται εἰς Ἅιδου δόμους. στείχω δὲ νῦν ἐπ' αὐτὴν καὶ κατάρξομαι ξίφει.

#### **Adverbs and Verbs**


#### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**



1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentence found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

οὐκ ἔστι σοὶ πάντ' ἔχειν, μάλιστα ταῦτα μή σε δεῖ.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

**Module 19 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Nouns**

**ἀνάγκη, ἀνάγκης ἡ** *force, necessity, fate* **ἀρετή, ἀρετῆς ἡ** *virtue, excellence* **ἔτος, ἔτεος (ἔτους) τό** *year* **καιρός, καιροῦ ὁ** *right moment, critical time, opportunity* **μάχη, μάχης ἡ** *battle* **τεῖχος, τείχεος (τείχους) τό** *wall*; (pl.) *stronghold*  **χείρ, χειρός ἡ (**dat pl. **χερσίν)** *hand; force, army* **Verbs οἶδα (**inf. **εἰδέναι), εἴσομαι, ------** *know, think, know how to* + inf. **πέμπω, πέμψω, ἔπεμψα, πέπομφα, πέπεμμαι, ἐπέμφθην** *send*

# **Etymology Corner XIX by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 15, Parts of Speech

**Prepositions (πρόθεσις) and Interjections, Modules 8 and 9. Preposition** is another word that is surprisingly literal. Our English term comes directly from the Latin because these are little words that are *positioned before* (**pre**) the words they govern. The Greek is analogous, because **θέσις** means placed (your **thesis** statement is a concise summary of your argument *placed* at the top (**πρό)** of your paper). **Thesis** comes from everyone's favorite verb, **τίθημι**.


**Interjections.** In the vocab for Module 9 we meet an **interjection**, a little word that is *thrown in-between* (Latin **jacere**, like javelin, a *thrown* weapon, or reject, to *throw* something back; **inter** like an interstate goes *between* states) as happens with utterances like **wow**, **golly**, **WTF**, **LOL**, and **holy bejeezus**.

**What to Study and Do 19.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have learned the verb forms of **οἶδα** and the endings for the present and future indicative and infinitive middle and passive for **ω-verbs, δίδωμι,** and **τίθημι** so that you can conjugate these verb forms. From this point on, the forms of **οἶδα** will not be glossed. Also make sure that you can identify these verb forms by person, number, tense, mood, and voice. Finally make sure that you understand the active, middle, and passive voices.

**Learning Tip 19: Consider the Subjectivity of Human Existence.** We experience culture and language as part of our environment just as we experience the wind and the rain. We may be inclined to conceive of these interactive experiences as representations of objective reality. The tree outside our window exists, as does bluegrass music and the English language. As we interact with nature and listen to music and communicate with language these events can be taken to represent the facts of our lived experiences. I encourage you to accept the trees, and music, and language as objective realities only in the most superficial sense that they exist. Beyond the superficiality of existence lie important intermediary constructs that we rely on. The tree exists as part of the construct of our viewing it. This viewing constitutes a part of our subjective knowing of the world. Thus reality has no objectivity outside of our subjective experience of it. As a result we can engage in a continuous process of creation as we strive to unlock the mysteries of our subjective experiences. As Newton creatively discovered an authentic world different from his own day's normal understanding of it and as Einstein did also, so can we embark on our own creative and authentic discoveries. Intense study of a subject is one way for all of us to begin this journey. On the journey, try to maintain two focuses. Use the beam from your flashlight to analyze and to understand language. Use the glow from your lantern to think creatively about how language works and what it means.

# Guest Feature 3 **Joe Goodkin, Singer and Songwriter**

Singer and songwriter Joe Goodkin tells his story in his own words.

I will never forget the first time I read Homer in Ancient Greek. I was in my fourth semester as an undergrad at UW-Madison. I intended to major in Psychology but my freshman year I took Ancient Greek on a whim and fell in love with it. By my sophomore year, I was a declared Classics major and that fourth semester in the Ancient Greek sequence brought Homeric epic into my life. We read selections from the Iliad and more than twenty years later I still have the text with my hand-marked dactylic hexameter scansion. I remember very clearly that the weight of the poetry, the meter, the language, surrounded me as if it was a living organism and made my head and heart simultaneously explode with joy. Ancient Greek is a time machine to me, a thread back through human history to understand and connect with people who lived 3000 years prior, people who wrestled with many of the same questions with which we wrestle today. And the more I learned of Homeric epic and how (many suppose) it was composed and performed in something like a song form, the more I became interested in seeing if I could combine one of my interests (Ancient Greek) with another (music and songwriting) and honor the epic tradition with an updated take on the same myths.

Though I read the *Iliad* in Greek first, I was more immediately taken with the story of the *Odyssey*. I saw in it an accessible and modern (for lack of a better word) narrative with issues and relationships I found more universal and more easily represented in the modern folk and rock song idiom. Not long after I graduated with my BA in Classics, I wrote a one-man "folk opera" song cycle consisting of twenty-four songs, each sung from the perspective of a character from the *Odyssey*. Odysseus got the most songs, but I also wrote songs through the eyes of Penelope, Telemachus, Athena, Alcinous, and Demodokos. The main thrust of my take of the story is that it's an exploration of identity and over the years performing my *Odyssey* for high school and college audiences as a modern bard became a big piece of my identity. To wit, I became "a man who goes around telling stories about a man who goes around telling stories" and this elegant merging (and maybe even blurring) of performer into subject furthered my insight into the complex relationship between bard and hero we are often invited to consider by the text of the *Odyssey*. My work around the Odyssey is collected here:

http://www.joesodyssey.com.

Almost from the beginning of my time performing the *Odyssey* (now nearly twenty years and over 300 performances ago), audiences wondered if I might create a similar adaptation of the *Iliad* and for most of those years, I suggested I wouldn't. My reason was that I wanted to keep my *Odyssey* as something *sui generis* but in reality I was afraid of the *Iliad*. It's a brutal story in a way that the *Odyssey* isn't, and because my approach to interpretation involves getting inside characters of the story, mining them for emotional resonance, and writing in the first person about their experiences, the idea of taking on warriors at war and a whole community of people impacted by war was, well, terrifying.

In his beautiful 2020 *New York Times* tribute to John Prine, Jason Isbell (a brilliant songwriter in his own right) wrote that "songwriting allows you to be anybody you want to be, so long as you get the details right" and when it came to the *Iliad*, I was worried that I couldn't get the details right. And I knew that for these characters deep inside the machine of war, the details were a matter of life and death because "the details" were "truth": their individual truths and a larger truth about war.

In 2014 I started spending time at my local VA hospital in conjunction with a charity called Guitars for Veterans. I was a volunteer guitar instructor, teaching guitar to veterans as part of recreational PTSD therapy. My experiences there interacting with veterans started to give me the vocabulary, the details, to consider writing about war in a way I felt was real enough to honor the *Iliad*. By March of 2018, I decided to go for it and started working in earnest on what became "The Blues of Achilles."

For almost a year, I didn't write a single song but gathered source material of both classical and other associations. This material included the following items:


Every one of these pieces gave me something to consider in how to work my way into the Iliad. But I still lacked a basic empathetic window. This came when I was lucky enough to interview a Gold Star father whose son was a US soldier killed in action in Iraq in 2006. His son's body was unrecoverable so he went to Iraq several years later, got as close to where his son was blown up as possible, and collected sand to bring home in place of a corpse. He was, in word, emotion, and action, no different from King Priam on a desperate journey to recover Hector's body.

Here was my window. I wrote my first Iliad song called Hands of Grief, sung from Priam's point of view as he begs Achilles for Hector's body. Here are the lyrics from the debut performance of the piece:

HANDS OF GRIEF (Priam's song to Achilles)

I'm before you on my knees Kissing the hands of my grief My son was cut down in the fighting And your hands took him from me

He was strong as a lion With a full head of hair Now it's caked with dust and rottin' But I still see him everywhere

If he had listened to my warnings Maybe he'd still be at my side He knew the risks but fought for glory And when he fell part of me died

I don't have much more to give To a world that's bled me dry I don't have much life to live Or many tears left to cry So think of someone who you love Who might someday be like me Grant mercy to my son's body And put it in my hands of grief Put it in my hands of grief

Once this window was open, most of the rest of the songs fell out of me very quickly. I realized that what I was attracted to most was (somewhat paradoxically) the love that permeates this story of horrendous violence and suffering: love between father and son, mother and son, soldier and soldier, brother and brother, husband and wife.

As I have Achilles sing in his song, "Wrong from Right," mourning Patroklus' death "I've got grief as deep as the love that we shared" and indeed, "grief" is sitting right there in Achilles' name (*achos*). Homer's *Iliad* is about the anger of Achilles, my *Iliad* is about the grief, the blues of Achilles.

To watch Joe Goodkin perform "Hands of Grief," follow this link:

Hands of Grief. 1

To watch Joe Goodkin perform "Wrong from Right," follow this link:

Wrong from Right. 2

<sup>1</sup> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oY6cgxoKm-U.

<sup>2</sup> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sRBHd2dqWjU.

# Module 20 **First and Second Declension Adjectives and Common Adjectives and Pronouns:** αὐτός**,** οὗτος**,** ὅδε**,**  ἐκεῖνος**, and -**ων**, -**ουσα**, -**ον

# **Adjectives**

Αdjectives **describe** nouns and pronouns. Consider this sentence:

Anyone lived in a pretty how town.

**Pretty** and **how** are adjectives describing the noun **town**.

# **Adjectives in Greek**

Adjectives must agree with the noun they modify in gender, number, and case. Consider this clause:

As I pondered weak and weary.

**Weak** and **weary** are adjectives modifying the pronoun **I**. In Greek these adjectives will agree in gender, number, and case with the pronoun **I**.

# **First and Second Declension Adjectives**

There are two types of first and second declension adjectives, adjectives of three endings and adjectives of two endings. All first and second declension adjectives use the same endings 1st and 2nd declension nouns use.


#### **Adjectives of Three Endings**


1. \*In the feminine singular use the **-ᾱ-endings** when the stem ends in **-ε**, **-ι**, **-ρ**.

### **χαλεπός, χαλεπή, χαλεπόν** and **ἄξιος, ἀξίᾱ, ἄξιον**

Note that you have already memorized the endings.



#### **Singular**


#### **Plural**


#### **Singular**



#### **Plural**


#### **Plural**



### **Adjectives of Two Endings**<sup>1</sup>

Note that the adjective endings for the masculine and feminine genders are identical.


### **ἄδικος, ἄδικον**

Note that you have already memorized the endings.


<sup>1</sup> Many of these start with alpha privative, equivalent to the English prefixes -un and -in, when -in negates the adjectival stem: **ἄδικος**, **ἄδικον** *unjust*; **ἀθάνατος**, **ἀθάνατον** *immortal*; **ἄθεος**, **ἄθεον** *atheist*.




### **Mixed-Declension Adjectives**

The masculine and neuter genders decline like nouns of sets 9 and 10. The feminine declines like short-alpha nouns of set 3, which you will learn in Module 21.



**Practice with Adjective and Noun Agreement.** Using the adjective **καλός**, **-ή**, **-όν**, pick the form that agrees in gender, case, and number with the nouns below. In order to complete the exercise correctly, you need to identify the right gender, number, and case of each noun. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.


### **Vocabulary**


# **Substantive Adjectives**

Sometimes the noun the adjective modifies is not present. If no noun is present, then do one of these three things:

	- a. **ὁ καλός** *the good* (man) **οἱ καλοί** *the good* (men)
	- b. **ἡ καλή** *the good* (woman) **αἱ καλαί** *the good* (women)
	- c. **τὸ καλόν** *the good* (thing) **τὰ καλά** *the good* (things)

In a conversation between Jason and Medea, Jason tells her that she only has herself to blame: **αὐτὴ τάδ' αἱρέῃ** *you yourself chose these things*. Medea responds with these words,

### **τί δράουσα;**

*By doing what*?

Context makes clear that we are to supply an **ἐγώ**, which refers to the person speaking, **Medea**.

3. leave the noun understood: **οἱ καλοί** *the good;* **αἱ καλαί** *the good;* **τὰ καλά** *the good.*

**Practice Translating Substantive Adjectives I.** For each of the below, supply the noun based upon the gender and number of the adjective. Check your translations with the answers found below.


### **Vocabulary**

### **ἄριστος, ἀρίστη, ἄριστον** *best*

**θεραπευτικός, θεραπευτική, θεραπευτικόν** *inclined to serve or take care of + gen.; courteous; therapeutic, healing*

**\*κακός, κακή, κακόν** *bad, evil, cowardly*

\***καλός, καλή, καλόν** *beautiful, good, noble*

**κενός, κενή, κενόν** *empty, free of* + gen.

**ξένος, ξένη, ξένον** *foreign, strange*

**\*πρῶτος, πρώτη, πρῶτον** *first, for the present, just now*

**σοφός, σοφή, σοφόν** *wise*

**χαλεπός, χαλεπή, χαλεπόν** *difficult, harsh*

#### **Answers.**


**Practice Translating Substantive Adjectives II.** Translate each of the sentences below. Make sure that you understand why each word is translated as it is. Once you have finished, check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key. Read through the sentences at least two more times, solidifying your understanding of the meaning of each.


### **Vocabulary**


### **θεραπευτικός, θεραπευτική, θεραπευτικόν** *inclined to serve or take care of* + gen.; *courteous; therapeutic, healing*

\***φίλος, φίλου ὁ** *friend*

\***χρόνος, χρόνου ὁ** *time* **χαλεπός, χαλεπή, χαλεπόν** *difficult, harsh*

\***ψυχή, ψυχῆς ἡ** *soul*

# **Common Adjectives and Pronouns**

Below are four common adjectives and pronouns. Each can be either an adjective or a pronoun, depending upon its function in context. Though there are minor differences you need to note, you have already memorized the endings that occur on most forms below.

### αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό




### οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο



### ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο



### ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε




**Practice Translating Pronouns and Adjectives.** Translate the below. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.


### **Vocabulary**

**\*ἅπας, ἅπασα, ἅπαν** *all, each, every, whole* **\*πέμπω, πέμψω** *send*


### **Medea**

*greater*

The character of Medea (**Μήδεια**) was a subject of great interest to the ancient Greeks and their artists. She was not a Greek but was born in Kolkhis at the eastern extremity of the Black Sea. Her father Aietes, **Αἰήτης**, a sorcerer and son of Helios, was king of Kolkhis and the keeper of the golden fleece. To Medea and Kolkhis came Jason with the Argonauts, in the Argo, the first ship, to get the fleece so that he could take over as king of Iolkos. According to one version of the story, upon his arrival Medea fell in love with him, betraying her family when she helped him win the golden fleece and escape. In their flight, Medea killed her brother, Apsyrtos, and spread the chopped-up pieces of him over the sea so that her father's ship would be delayed in collecting the body parts. Medea and Jason settled in Iolkos—Jason's hereditary land. Although Jason returned with the fleece as demanded, Jason's uncle Pelias, still cheated him of his right to the kingship. In revenge Medea persuaded Pelias' daughters to kill their father by tricking them into thinking that they were rejuvenating—not killing—him. Jason and Medea, along with their two to fourteen children, were exiled from Iolkos and took up residence in Corinth where Jason would abandon his wife Medea, to marry King Kreon's daughter.

Many myths had variant accounts of Medea's life. In other versions of the Medea myth, Aietes was warned by an oracle that a stranger would kill him and steal the golden fleece. To protect himself, Aietes decreed that all foreigners were to be sacrificed to Artemis and installed his daughter Medea as the priestess of the cult. Medea opposed the cruelty of human sacrifice and secretly used her position to rescue as many Greeks as she could. Her father found her out and so she sought asylum in the temple of Helios, her ancestor and family god. Here the Argonauts found her. She joined them. The Argonauts fought the Kolkhians and in the battle Aietes was killed. In another version Medea willingly performed the killing of foreigners until Jason arrived. As she was about to kill him, Eros or Aphrodite intervened to save him. In another version, Jason sailed to Kolkhis to get the golden fleece. To assist him, Aphrodite gave him her iynx—a love charm with which he could take away Medea's respect for her parents and win her love.

There are at least four different endings to the story of Medea. Euripides may be the one who invented the version found in his play, *Medea*. In Euripides' play, Medea kills her children so as to obtain revenge on her husband Jason's infidelity and to prevent anyone else from killing them. In another version the play ends with Medea's killing Kreon and his daughter, the princess and Jason's new bride. In a third, the play ends with Jason and Medea's marriage. And finally, a fourth ends with Jason's abduction of Medea from Kolkhis. When considering myth, be aware that the writers were free to reinvent and retell the stories as suited their fancy and needs.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Euripides' *Medea* (**Μήδεια**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII and the **Case and Function Chart**  in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

**Ἰάσων:** καλῶς γε τῷ ὑπηρετήσεις λόγῳ, εἰ σοι γάμον καταλέγω; σὺ οὐδὲ νῦν τολμάεις μεθιέναι καρδίας μέγαν χόλον.

**Μήδεια:** οὐ σὲ τοῦτ' ἔχει, ἀλλὰ βάρβαρον λέχος πρὸς γῆρας οὐκ εὔδοξον ἐκβήσεταί σοι.

**5 Ἰάσων:** εὖ νυν τόδ' οἶσθα· μὴ γυναικὸς ἕνεκα ἐγὼ γαμέω κόρην βασιλέων. αὐτὴν νῦν ἔχω, ὅτι, ὥσπερ πολλὰ σοὶ λέγω, σῴζειν θέλων σὲ καὶ τέκνοις τοῖς ἐμοῖς ὁμοσπόρους φύειν τυράννους παῖδας, ἔρυμα δώμασιν.

**Μήδεια:** πολὺ οὐ βούλομαί μοι λυπρὸν εὐδαίμονα βίον ἔχειν μήδ' ὄλβον εἰ αὐτὸς τὴν ἐμὴν κνίζει φρένα.

**10 Ἰάσων:** οἶσθα μετεύχεσθαι καὶ σοφωτέρα φαίνεσθαι; δεῖ γὰρ τὰ χρηστὰ μή σοι λυπρὰ φαίνεσθαί ποτε καὶ δεῖ σέ, εὐτυχέουσαν, μὴ δυστυχέα εἶναι δοκέειν.

**Μήδεια:** ἔστι σοί με ὑβρίζειν, ἐπειδὴ σοὶ μὲν ἔστ' ἀποστροφή, ἐγὼ δ' ἔρημος τὴν φεύξομαι χθόνα.

**Ἰάσων:** αὐτὴ τάδ' αἱρέῃ· δεῖ μηδέν' ἄλλον αἰτιόεσθαί σε.

**15 Μήδεια:** τί δράουσα; ἄλλον γαμέω καὶ προδίδωμί σε; **Ἰάσων:** οὔτοι πότε ἀρὰς τυράννοις ἀνοσίους ἀράει; **Μήδεια:** καὶ σοῖς ἀραία γ' εἶναι δοκέω δόμοις.

#### **Adverbs and Verbs**



**εὐδαίμων, εὐδαίμονος** *fortunate, wealthy, happy*

**εὔδοξος, εὔδοξον** *of good repute, honored, famous, glorious*

**χόλος,χόλου ὁ** *gall, bile, anger, wrath*

**χρηστά, χρηστῶν τά** *useful, good, honest, worthy*

### **εὐτυχέουσα, εὐτυχεούσης ἡ**

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentence found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

αὐτὴ τάδ' αἱρέῃ· δεῖ μηδέν' ἄλλον αἰτιόεσθαί σε.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

**Module 20 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Adjectives and Pronouns**

**ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο** *another, other* **αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό** *he, she, it*; *-self* (pred.); *same* (att.) often + dative **ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο (κεῖνος, κείνη, κεῖνο)** *that, those; he, she, it, they* **ἐμός, ἐμή, ἐμόν** *my* **ἕτερος, ἑτέρᾱ, ἕτερον** *other, another* **ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε** *he, she, it; this, these* **ὅσος, ὅση, ὅσον** *so many, as many as* **οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο** *he, she, it; this, these* **τοιοῦτος, τοιαύτη, τοιοῦτο** *of such a kind* or *sort*

# **Etymology Corner XX by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 16, Parts of Speech

**Verbs, Modules 9, 10, 17, 19, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30.** We've already discussed why a verb (**ῥῆμα)** is called a verb. In Module 9 we drill down into some specifics on verb terminology. We are first introduced to **transitive** and **intransitive** verbs. The core of these two words is **trans**, *across*, like transporting something carries it *across* from one place to another, and **it** meaning *go* in Latin. A **transitive verb** has its action *go across* into an object. The **in** prefix in intransitive means *not* (analogous to alphaprivative **α-** in Greek, think **a**theist) in the way you can't eat something that's inedible, so an **intransitive verb** denotes a state of being. A pizza sitting on the counter is **intransitive**, it's just there, it's not going anywhere. When I eat the pizza and the pizza satisfies me, the eating and satisfying *carry over* onto objects, pizza, and me respectively. For practice with transitive and intransitive verbs, see Module 30.

**What to Study and Do 20.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you understand noun and adjective agreement and how adjectives can function as substantives. Also memorize the common adjectives and pronouns presented in this module. From this point on, their forms will not be glossed.

**Learning Tip 20: The Memory Palace.** Of all the strategies used by super-memorizers, the memory palace technique, perhaps invented by Simonides of Kos, **Σιμωνίδης ὁ Κεῖος** (c. 556–468 BCE), a Greek lyric poet, is the one they employ most frequently. As you have seen previously, the memory palace works on the principle of associating new information with old information. Take any route that you know well. This route can be a walk through your house, a trip to work, or a walk through a park or forest you are familiar with. The key is to make sure that your journey includes landmarks that you know well. Link the new information to the old information by using established landmarks, so as to complete the formula **LTM + STH = MTM**. Let's imagine that you want to create a memory palace list of authors mentioned in this text. We'll start with the first few people in the below list of ten but you can make the list and the journey as long as you wish,

Homer, Herakleitos, Anakreon, Mimnermos, Sappho, Herodotos, Thoukydides, Aiskhylos, Sophokles, Euripides.

Since this memory palace is on ancient Greek writers, before the entrance into my memory palace of ancient Greek writers I imagine walking through the columns of the Parthenon, the temple dedicated to the Greek goddess of wisdom, Athena. Upon walking through the columns, I stand first on a welcome home mat, located at the palace's entrance. **Home** reminds me of **Homer**. The welcome home mats sits before a door. The door is pasted with a bunch of ads from magazines. Homer is reading an **ad** posted on the door that **ad**vertises the healing of **ill** people. **Ill** and **ad** remind me that Homer wrote the *Iliad*. I open the door and proceed over the welcome home mat to the workbench. The bench has two **odd**-shaped dice on it, one with the number **seven** and the other with the number **five**. The **odd**-shaped dice are floating on a **sea** of oil, spilled on the workbench. The workbench with the **odd**-shaped dice, the **odd**-numbers, and the **sea** of oil remind me that Homer wrote the *Odyssey*. The **odd** numbers **seven** and **five** help me to remember *Odyssey* and also assist me in remembering that Homer dates to about 750 BCE. There is another memory technique that involves turning numbers into words in order to remember dates. In this technique, the date 750 can be represented by the word **keels**. I add the **keels** of 1000 ships to the **sea** of oil on the workbench. **Keels** represents the date 750 and the thousand ships are the Greek ships that sailed to Troy to win back Helen for Menelaos. I'll describe the number technique for remembering dates in a later learning tip. As I stand at the door that enters into the mudroom, I **hear** a **cry**. The **hear a cry** reminds me of **Heraklei**tos. I open the door into the mudroom and step into a river, first with my right foot and then again with my left foot. I remember that Herakleitos is the Greek philosopher who said that we can never step in the same river twice, since a river is always in flux and ever-changing. The approximate date of Herakleitos' birth is **535**. **535** can be represented by the word **lamely**. As I stem one foot into the river and then a second foot into the river, I think that with each foot I limp **lamely** into Herakleitos' everchanging river. I need to use the restroom and so I leave the mudroom and enter the bathroom. On the john sits **Anne** of **Green** Gables. **Anne** of **Green** Gables' sitting on the toilet reminds me of **Anakreon of Teios**. On the toilet, **Anne** of **Green** Gables is making bread, pouring **leaven** into flour and drinking **tea**. **Leaven** represents the number **582**, the approximate date of Anakreon's birth. As she pours the leaven into a bowl of flour, **Anne** of **Green** Gables drinks her **tea** to remind me of Teios and reads a bread recipe found on a papyrus scroll found at Oxyrhynchus, filled with the lost poems of Anakreon's corpus.

As you proceed through each person on the list, link each to an image and to a place in your memory palace so that you join new information to old. Remember that imagination always beats will, though with both methods you will still need to review. Also remember to have fun using your imagination to remember whatever sparks your curiosity.

# Module 21 **First Declension Short Alpha Nouns**

## **Nouns**

Nouns in Greek are defined just like nouns are in English; but the way they create meaning is different. As in English, Greek nouns (**ὀνόματα**) refer to people, places, things, and ideas. Greek nouns have endings. English nouns can change form when they show possession as in **Jada's book**, where the **'s** is added as a suffix and indicates that the book belongs to Jada. English nouns also change form when expressing the plural: two **suns**, three **oxen**, four **mice**. The endings on Greek nouns, as we have seen previously, create the same meanings that English does through form change, word order, and the use of prepositional phrases.

# **First Declension Short Alpha Nouns in** –α, –ης **and** –α, –ᾱς

These nouns are feminine in gender. In the Attic dialect, nouns whose stem ends in **-ε**, **-ι**, or **-ρ** take the short alpha **-α**, **-ᾱς** endings. Memorize these endings, know how to obtain the stem, and know how to decline the nouns. As you learn new ending sets, look at the similarities and differences each has when compared to those endings you have already memorized.

# **Declining First Declension Short Alpha Nouns** –α**,** –ης **and** –α**,** –ᾱς

To decline first declension nouns ending in -**α**, -**ης** and -**α**, -**ᾱς**, first get the stem by removing the genitive singular ending **-ης** or **-ᾱς**. What remains is the stem. To the stem add the following endings:


#### **Feminine**


#### θάλαττα, θαλάττης and πεῖρα, πείρᾱς


1. The alpha of the nominative singular, accusative singular, and vocative singular is short.


# **First Declension Nouns in –**ης**, –**ου **and –**ᾱς**, –**ου

These nouns are masculine in gender. In the Attic dialect, endings from the **-ᾱς**, **-ου** declension are found only in nouns whose stem ends in **-ε**, **-ι**, or **-ρ**. Memorize these endings, know how to obtain the stem, and know how to decline the nouns. As you learn new ending sets, look at the similarities and differences each has when compared to those endings you have already memorized.

# **Declining First Declension Masculine Nouns in** –ης, – ου **and** –ᾱς, –ου

To decline first declension nouns ending in -**ης**, -**ου** and -**ᾱς**, -**ου**, first remove the genitive singular ending **-ου**. What remains is the stem. To the stem add the following endings:


\*For the vocative singular, use **-α** unless otherwise noted.


\*For the vocative singular, use **-α** unless otherwise noted.

#### στρατιώτης, στρατιώτου and νεανίᾱς, νεανίου



5. If the nominative singular has an acute accent on the ultima, it changes to a circumflex in the genitive and dative, singular and plural.

## **Noun Identification**

You now know ten sets of endings for nouns: Noun Identification. You now know ten sets of endings for nouns:



For the nouns below, take note of what set of endings each noun takes. For the nouns below, take note of what set of endings each noun takes.


260


**Practice Declining Nouns.** Decline these nouns with the article (answers are in the Answer Key): **μοῦσα, μούσης ἡ** *muse* and **ποιητής, ποιητοῦ ὁ** *poet*.

As you write out the forms, note the similarities and differences with the endings you have already memorized. Writing out the forms helps you to process this new information.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Euripides' *Medea* (**Μήδεια**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII and the **Case and Function Chart**  in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

**Ἰάσων:** οὐ κρινοῦμαι τῶνδέ σοι τὰ πλείονα. ἀλλ', εἴ τι βούλῃ παισὶν ἢ σαυτῇ, φυγῆς προσωφέλημα, χρημάτων ἐμῶν λαβεῖν πλείονα, ταῦτα σχήσεις. ἕτοιμος ἀφθόνῳ διδόναι χειρὶ ξένοις τε πέμπειν σύμβολα. οἱ δὲ δράσουσί σ' εὖ. καὶ ταῦτα μὴ θέλουσα, μωρανεῖς. λήγουσα δ' ὀργῆς, κερδανεῖς ἀμείνονα.

**5 Μήδεια:** οὐ βούλομαι ξένοις τοῖς σοῖς χρᾶσθαι οὔτε τι δέχεσθαι. κελεύω μὴ ἡμῖν διδόναι. κακοῦ γὰρ ἀνδρὸς δῶρ' ὄνησιν οὐκ ἔχει.

**Ἰάσων:** ἀλλ' οὖν ἐγὼ μὲν δαίμονας μαρτύρομαι ὡς πάνθ' ὑπουργεῖν σοί τε καὶ τέκνοις θέλω. σοὶ δ' οὐκ ἀρέσκει τὰ ἀγαθά. ἀλλ' αὐθαδίᾳ φίλους ἀπωθῇ· τοιγὰρ ἀλγυνῇ πλέον.

**10 Μήδεια:** ὥρα σοὶ χωρεῖν· πόθῳ γὰρ τῆς νεοδμήτου κόρης σπουδάζεις χρονίζειν δωμάτων ἐξώπιος; δοκεῖ σοὶ νυμφεύειν· ἴσως γάρ τοιοῦτον θρηνήσῃ γάμον.

### **Adverbs and Verbs**



1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentence found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

πόθῳ γὰρ τῆς νεοδμήτου κόρης σπουδάζεις χρονίζειν δωμάτων ἐξώπιος;

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

# **History**

History begins with Herodotos. Though influenced by epic, travelogues, medical treatises, and other intellectual writings, Herodotos and his *Histories* are discontinuous. They represent a distinct break with the past in their creation of a new genre intent on explaining what happened in the fighting between the Greeks and the barbarians and on preserving other items of interest, including customs, fauna, flora, great works, sexual mores, and religious beliefs. Thoukydides continued Herodotos' novel approach, writing a contemporary history of the Peloponnesian Wars, which he called an objective presentation of what really happened and a **κτῆμα ἐς αἰεί**, *possession for all time*. Xenophon then picked up where Thoukydides left off, starting his *Hellenika* in 411 BCE and ending in 362 BCE. Our fascination with histories, myths, and stories of all sorts continues today as we seek to understand the present and predict the future through our study of the past.

**Module 21 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Nouns and Adjectives**

**ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν** *good, noble* **δόξα, δόξης ἡ** *expectation, notion, opinion; reputation* **θάλασσα (θάλαττα), θαλάσσης ἡ** *sea* **μόνος, μόνη, μόνον** *only, sole, alone, solitary; one* **πολέμιος, πολεμίᾱ, πολέμιον** *hostile*  **πρότερος, προτέρᾱ, πρότερον** *prior, before, sooner* **πρῶτος, πρώτη, πρῶτον** *first, for the present, just now* **σός, σή, σόν** *your*  **φίλος, φίλη, φίλον** *friendly, kind, well-disposed* + dat.; (n.) *friend*

# **Etymology Corner XXI by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 17, Parts of Speech

**Verbs, cont.** The word **finis** in Latin means *end*, so **finite** verbs are doubly appropriate in English. On a small level, the verb has an *ending* on it (a **finis**). On a broader level, the endings *limit* the action of a verb to a person and number doing it and making the action *finite*. When a verb has *no limitations* of person and number, i.e., *no endings*, it is an **infinitive**. **Infinitives** are translated in English with **to**, and you can remember that from the famous saying of Buzz Lightyear who became a grammarian after the *Toy Story* series: "To = infinitive! And beyond!"

**What to Study and Do 21.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have memorized the short-alpha noun endings and can decline these nouns from memory. Also make sure that you understand that each noun takes one ending set. Finally make sure that you understand how to read the chart on noun endings.

**Learning Tip 21: Learn from Mistakes and Successes.** Look for the errors behind your mistakes but beware of rearview-mirror hindsight biases. Own your failures and your mistakes. The most common error is to learn too little from your mistakes, though the opposite is also possible. Also evaluate your successes—were you just lucky or did you reason things out correctly? Consider this culinary example. You cook a dish that does not taste as good as you wish. Consider the ingredients you used, how you cooked it, and how you spiced it. Find your error and look to correct it. If your spicing is off, try using more or less salt and balancing your flavors with acid. Learning to do anything consistently well requires an understanding of what works and what does not

# Module 22 **The Relative Pronoun**

# **The Relative Pronoun**

The relative pronoun in Greek is defined in the same way as the relative pronoun is in English. The function of the Greek pronoun (**ἀντωνυμία**) differs from the English because it creates meaning through case endings much more extensively than the English pronoun does. Relative pronouns in both languages take the place of nouns. These pronouns are called **relative** because they are **related**  to another word in the sentence. This **related** word is called the **antecedent.** Relative pronouns always introduce a **clause**. A clause has a subject and a verb. **Relative clauses** have a subject, a verb, and a relative pronoun.

# **The Relative Pronoun and Word Order**

In English and in Greek the relative pronoun comes first in its relative clause unless it is the object of a preposition, in which case it comes second: **whom I see** and **by whom I sit**.

# **The Relative Pronoun in English**

The Relative Pronoun in English is **who, whom, whose**; **which**; **that** and sometimes **what**. The English relative pronoun has the following case forms:


Relative clauses form part of a dependent clause because these clauses do not form a complete thought and therefore cannot stand on their own as complete sentences. Rather, relative clauses serve to describe some detail about their antecedent.

Consider the following passage from *Moby Dick* (1851). The relative pronouns are in bold and their antecedents are underlined. Parentheses are included to indicate the beginning and end of the relative clause.

It was a queer sort of place—a gable-ended old house, one side palsied as it were, and leaning over sadly. It stood on a sharp bleak corner, where that tempestuous wind Euroclydon kept up a worse howling than ever it did about poor Paul's tossed craft. Euroclydon, nevertheless, is a mighty pleasant zephyr to any one in-doors, with his feet on the hob quietly toasting for bed. "In judging of that tempestuous wind called Euroclydon," says an old writer—(of **whose** works I possess the only copy extant)—"it maketh a marvellous difference, whether thou lookest out at it from a glass window where the frost is all on the outside, or whether thou observest it from that sashless window, where the frost is on both sides, and (of **which** the wight Death is the only glazier)." True enough, thought I, as this passage occurred to my mind—old black-letter, thou reasonest well. Yes, these eyes are windows, and this body of mine is the house. What a pity they didn't stop up the chinks and the crannies though, and thrust in a little lint here and there. But it's too late to make any improvements now. The universe is finished; the copestone is on, and the chips were carted off a million years ago. Poor Lazarus there, chattering his teeth against the curbstone for his pillow, and shaking off his tatters with his shiverings, he might plug up both ears with rags, and put a corn-cob into his mouth, and yet (**that** would not keep out the tempestuous Euroclydon). Euroclydon! says old Dives, in his red silken wrapper—he had a redder one afterwards—pooh, pooh! What a fine frosty night; how Orion glitters; what northern lights! Let them talk of their oriental summer climes of everlasting conservatories; give me the privilege of making my own summer with my own coals.

In learning relative pronouns, you must memorize the definition of a relative pronoun and a relative clause. You must also memorize the forms of the relative pronoun. If you can pick out relative pronouns and relative clauses in English, you can transfer this knowledge to your understanding of the relative pronoun in Greek.

**Practice Identifying the Relative Pronoun in English.** Pick out the antecedents and the relative pronouns from this slightly adapted excerpt from Robin Kelley's *Thelonious Monk: The Life and Times of an American Original* (2009)*.* Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

Coltrane had been playing Monk's tunes as part of Miles Davis' band but he wanted to learn more, in particular "Monk's Mood." So, one night at the Algonquin on 63rd, Nica's house, a place at which they often practiced, Thelonious sat down with 'Trane and taught him "Monk's Mood." Hungry to know more Coltrane made a trip which became an almost daily pilgrimage to West 63rd Street. He recounted these visits to critic August Blume with whom he met a year later: "I'd go by Monk's house, you know. By his apartment, and get him out of bed, maybe. And he'd wake up and go over to the piano, which was in his bedroom, and start playing, you know. He'd play anything, like one of his tunes or whatever. He starts playing it, and he'd look at me. I'd get my horn and start trying to find the thing that he's playing. And he tended to play over, and over, and over, and over, and I'd get this far. Next time we'd go over it, I'd get another part. He would stop when we came to parts that were pretty difficult. And if I had a lot of trouble, he'd get out his portfolio, which he always had with him, and I'd see the music, the music which he had written out. And I'd read it and learn. He believed a guy learned best without music. That way you feel it better. You feel it quicker when you memorize it and you learn it by heart, by ear. When I almost had the tune which he was teaching me down, then he would leave, leave me with it to fight with it alone. And he'd go out somewhere, maybe go to the store, or go to bed or something. And I'd just stay there and run over it until I had it pretty well and I'd call him and we'd put it down together. Sometimes we'd just get one tune a day."

# **The Forms of the Relative Pronoun** ὅς, ἥ, ὅ

Below are the forms for the relative pronoun in Greek. Note that like Greek nouns, pronouns have gender, number, and case, and so when you encounter them, you will often need to supply the appropriate preposition. Note also that the relative pronoun forms are nearly identical to the noun endings you have already memorized.


Consider the following sentences and note the relative pronouns (in bold) and their antecedents (underlined):

1. ἀνέθηκε δὲ κρητῆρά τε ἀργύρεον μέγαν καὶ ὑποκρητηρίδιον σιδήρεον κολλητόν, θέης ἄξιον διὰ πάντων τῶν ἐν Δελφοῖσι ἀναθημάτων, Γλαύκου τοῦ Χίου ποίημα, **ὃς** μοῦνος δὴ πάντων ἀνθρώπων σιδήρου κόλλησιν ἐξεῦρε (Herodotos).

He dedicated a large silver mixing bowl and a wrought iron stand. Of all the offerings in Delphi it is worth seeing the work of Glaukos from Khios, the person among all of humankind **who** invented the welding of iron.

2. περὶ δὲ τῶν τοῦ Νείλου πηγέων οὐδεὶς ἔχει λέγειν· ἀοίκητός τε γὰρ καὶ ἔρημος ἐστὶ ἡ Λιβύη δι᾽ **ἧς** ῥέει (Herodotos).

About the source of the Nile no one can say since Libya, through **which** it flows, is uninhabited and a desert.

3. **σὺ** καὶ ἐμοὶ τολμᾷς συμβουλεύειν, ὃς χρηστῶς μὲν τὴν σεωυτοῦ πατρίδα ἐπετρόπευσας (Herodotos).

**You** dare give me advice? **You** who so expertly governed your own country?

4. ἐτύγχανον **παιδὸς** Φέρητος, ὃν θανεῖν ἐρρυσάμην Μοίρας δολώσας (Euripides).

I met the **child** of Pheres, whom I saved from dying by tricking the Fates.

5. ἀλλ' **ἣν** ἔθαπτον, εἰσορῶ δάμαρτ' ἐμήν (Euripides);

### But do I look upon my **wife**, whom I buried?

In each, the relative pronoun has a noun or pronoun in the sentence to which it is related. The noun or pronoun to which it is related is called the relative pronoun's antecedent. The antecedent typically precedes the relative pronoun, as occurs in each example except the last. The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number but takes its case from its use in its own clause.

**Practice Parsing in English.** Consider these English sentences (the antecedent is underlined and the relative pronoun is in bold). For each sentence parse the words by specifying which case each word would be in if you translated it into Greek and by specifying what function the case has. It may be helpful to use the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I. Then check the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word is parsed as it is.


**Practice Parsing the Relative Pronoun.** Translate the sentences. For each sentence, parse the words by specifying the case and function each noun, pronoun, and adjective has. For verbs and adverbs identify them as such. It may be helpful to use the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I. Check your answers with those in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word is parsed as it is.


### **Vocabulary**


### **The Relative Pronoun in Summary**

In sum the relative pronoun takes the place of a noun and functions just as other Greek nouns and pronouns do. It has the special quality of being related to another noun in the sentence, called the antecedent. The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number but takes its case and function from its use in the relative clause.

**Sophokles of Athens, Σοφοκλῆς ὁ Ἀθηναῖος c. 497–406 BCE.** Sophokles wrote satyr plays and tragedies. He composed over 120 plays and seven have survived, the most famous being *Oidipous Tyrannos* (*Oedipus Rex*) **Οἰδίπους Τύραννος**, and *Antigone* **Ἀντιγόνη**. He is said to have won twenty-four of the thirty competitions he entered. In other contests he was placed second, but never third. His extant plays are seven: *Oidipous Tyrannos, Oidipous at Kolonos, Antigone, Ajax, Philoktetes, Elektra*, and *Trakhiniae*. Sophokles is said to have portrayed people as better than they are in reality. He was the son of Sophilos, a wealthy industrialist. In 443 he was imperial treasurer. He was elected general at least twice, once in 440 when he was a colleague of Perikles in the suppression of the Samian revolt, and again with Nikias. After the Sikilian disaster, he was one of the ten elected to deal with the crisis. He was priest of the healing deity Amynos and made his house a place of worship for Asklepios until the temple being built for the deity was completed. In recognition of this, Sophokles was worshipped as a hero after his death.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Sophokles' *Philoktetes* (**Φιλοκτήτης**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII and the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

> **Νεοπτόλεμος:** ἐγὼ μέν, τοὺς λόγους κλύων, ἀλγῶ φρένα, Λαερτίου παῖ· ταῦτα γὰρ πράσσειν στυγῶ καὶ φύω οὐδὲν ἐκ τέχνης πράσσειν κακῆς, καὶ αὐτὸς καὶ ὁ πατήρ. ἀλλ' εἴμ' ἑτοῖμος πρὸς βίαν τὸν ἄνδρ' ἄγειν καὶ μὴ δόλοις. οὐ γὰρ ἐξ ἑνὸς ποδὸς ἡμᾶς τοσούσδε πρὸς βίαν χειρώσεται. σοὶ ξυνεργάτης ὀκνῶ προδότης καλεῖσθαι. βούλομαι δ', ἄναξ, καλῶς δράων, καὶ ἐξαμαρτάνειν μᾶλλον ἢ νικάειν κακῶς.

**Ὀδυσσεύς:** ἐσθλοῦ πατρὸς παῖ, καὶ ὢν νέος ποτὲ γλῶσσαν μὲν ἀργόν, χεῖρα δ' ἔχω ἐργάτιν. νῦν δ' ὡς εἰς ἔλεγχον ἐξέρχομαι, καὶ ὁρῶ ὅτι βροτοῖς ἡ γλῶσσα, οὐ τὰ ἔργα, πάνθ' ἡγέεται.

**Νεοπτόλεμος:** τί οὐ με κελεύεις ἄλλο πλὴν ψευδὲς λέγειν;

**Ὀδυσσεύς:** κελεύω σ' ἐγὼ δόλῳ Φιλoκτήτην λαβεῖν.

**Νεοπτόλεμος:** τί δ' ἐν δόλῳ δεῖ λαβεῖν μᾶλλον ἢ πεῖσαι;

**Ὀδυσσεύς:** οὐ πείσεται καὶ πρὸς βίαν οὐκ ἔστιν ἄγειν αὐτόν.

**Νεοπτόλεμος:** ὁ δ' οὕτως ἔχει δεινὸν ἰσχύος θράσος;

**Ὀδυσσεύς:** ἰούς γ' ἀφύκτους ἔχει, οἳ προπέμπουσι φόνον.

**Νεοπτόλεμος:** οὐκ ἆρ' ἐκείνῳ γ' οὐδὲ προσμῖξαι ἡμῖν θρασύ;

**Ὀδυσσεύς:** ἔστιν εἰ δόλῳ αὐτὸν λαμβάνομεν, ὡς ἐγὼ λέγω.

#### **Adverbs, Prepositions, and Verbs**


*unerring, inevitable*


1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentence found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

ἔστιν εἰ δόλῳ αὐτὸν λαμβάνομεν, ὡς ἐγὼ λέγω.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

**Module 22 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Adjectives and Pronouns**

**Ἀθηναῖος, Ἀθηναίᾱ, Ἀθηναῖον** *Athenian, of* or *from Athens*

**ἄξιος, ἀξίᾱ, ἄξιον** *worthy, deserving* + gen.

**ἀμφότερος, ἀμφοτέρᾱ, ἀμφότερον** *both*

**ἴδιος, ἰδίᾱ, ἴδιον** *one's own; one's self*

**ἱερός, ἱερά, ἱερόν** *holy;* (n. in sg.) *temple;* (n. in pl.) *sacrifices*

**κακός, κακή, κακόν** *bad, evil, cowardly*

**ὅς, ἥ, ὅ** *who, whose, whom; which, that;* **ᾗ** *by which way, just as;* **ἐν ᾧ** *while;* **ἐς ὅ** *until*

**ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅ τι** *whoever, whatever*

**Verbs**

**ἀξιόω, ἀξιώσω, ἠξίωσα, ἠξίωκα, ἠξίωμαι, ἠξιώθην** *deem worthy, think fit* + '*x*' in acc. + inf.*; expect* + '*x*' in acc. + inf; *deem* '*x*' in acc. *worthy of* '*y*' in gen.

**ἀποθνῄσκω (θνῄσκω), ἀποθανέομαι**, **ἀπέθανον, τέθνηκα, ------, ------** *die, perish*

# **Etymology Corner XXII by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 18, Parts of Speech

**Verbs, cont.** Verbs also have **tense** and **aspect** or **tense-aspect**, which is unrelated to how you may feel learning all this new vocabulary. Tense meaning *stressed* is from an entirely different root than **tense** meaning *the time a verb happened*, even though the words are spelled the same. Words like these are **homonyms**. Here's yet another example of how English is confusing, and Greek wouldn't put up with that nonsense. A verb **tense** comes from the Latin **tempus**, *time*, like in temporary (something for a limited *time*) and the cliché **tempus fugit**, *time flies*.

**Aspect** has an easy etymology but took a winding road before grammarians picked it up. **Aspect** comes from *to look towards* (from Latin **spectare,** like spectacles which you *look* through or an inspector who *looks* into stuff **+** the prefix **ad** like adhere meaning *to cling to* something). It seems to have its origin in astronomy, describing the relative positions of two objects, i.e., how they *look at* each other. If you extend that concept of relative motion and position and squint a little, you can see how one could use that to describe if an action is complete (perfective), incomplete (imperfective), or in a state (stative). When an action has been *entirely full/fulfilled*, it's **completed**. Use the prefix **in** *not* and you have an action that is *not entirely full/fulfilled* and is in **progress** or is **repeated**. **Progress** derives from *stepping forward* (**gradior/gressus**, which gives us aggressive—someone *stepping up* on us—and **grade**—what *step* you are at in school, what *level* your work was); **repeated** comes from *asking for something again* (**petere** like in petition, a form people sign *asking* for change). The **progressive/ repeatedness** of the **incomplete aspect** has the sense of the action *going along* or *going back* to it. Action in a **state** (**στάσις**) results from a previously completed action or from a completed action whose effects are still relevant.

**What to Study and Do 22.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have memorized the forms of the relative pronoun and that you can write them out from memory. Remember that the relative pronoun takes its gender and number from its antecendent and its case from its use in its own clause. Also be sure you can parse relative pronouns and their antecedents.

**Learning Tip 22: Seek to Access the Creative.**The creative minds of artists, composers, poets, scientists, and songwriters speak of their most creative moments as the mystery of a muse or some outside force speaking through them. This creativity exists for all of us to tap into. Meditation, novelty, and travel are supposed to help. Learn how to access creativity through concentrated effort, open-mindedness, and a letting go of control. Employing memory strategies enables you to combine the processing of new information with your ability to let your mind create memorable images and associations. Rhymed pegging is a way to use numbers in order to remember items in a specific order. In this strategy, you rhyme an item with each number, like so:

One Bun Two Shoe Three Tree Four Door Five Hive Six Sticks Seven Heaven Eight Gate Nine Vine

#### Ten Hen

Next you associate items in a list with each rhymed peg. Let's revisit our list of ten Greek writers,

Homer, Herakleitos, Anakreon, Mimnermos, Sappho, Herodotos, Thoukydides, Aiskhylos, Sophokles, Euripides,

picking up with the author Mimnermos. For Mimnermos I think of the words **I'm Nervous**. Next I link **Mimnermos** and **I'm Nervous** to **One Bun**. I think of a bun filled with snake eyes covered in an onion and mustard sauce. Mimnermos dates to about 630 BCE. 630 can be represented by the word James. I picture Jesse **James** making fun of me because **I'm nervous** to eat the bun filled with snake eyes, covered in an onion mustard sauce. For Sappho I think of a **hoe** covered with tree **sap**. I've just stepped on the **hoe** and got **sap** all over my **shoe**. When I stepped on the hoe, the handle hit my nose, making it turn big and blue. Sappho dates to about **630**. The words **shims** can represent the number **630**. I take one of the many shims, scattered on the ground and use it to try to remove the sap from my shoe. Herodotos makes me think of **heroes** and **dots**. I picture the Greek **heroes** Jason and Herakles wearing polka **dot**ted dresses as they try to climb a huge **tree** where the golden fleece is stuck high in the branches and wrapped around the club of the **hero** Herakles. Herodotos dates to about 484. The number 484 can be represented by the word **river**. The **hero** Herakles suggests to the **hero** Jason that they divert the nearby **river** so as to knock down the **tree** and recover the golden fleece and club.

For the remaining authors, try making up your own associations. Kevin Horsley explains a second pegging system that you can use. This strategy asks you to relate a number to an object. In this pegging system, zero is a soccer ball. One is a pencil. Two is a duck. Three is a camel. Four is a sailboat. Five is a snake. Six is an elephant. Seven is a fishing rod and line. Eight is a snowman. Nine is a balloon and string. Each item represents the shape of its number. And so the fishing rod and line form the number 7. In using this pegging system, you apply a similar strategy, linking the item you want to remember to the object that the number represents instead of to the object the number rhymes with. Remember to use your creativity to remember new information.

# **Self-Assessment Modules 14–22**

Rate yourself on a scale of 1 to 10, where 10 represents mastery and 1 its opposite. Answer each of the below thoughtfully. For any score less than a 7, review the material.

# **MEMORY**


# **APPLICATION AND CONCEPTS**


### **READING AND TRANSLATING**


# Module 23 **The Imperfect and Aorist Indicative of** λέγω**,** ἔχω**,** ἐργάζομαι**,** δίδωμι**,**  τίθημι

# **The Verb**

In Greek and in English verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs are words that represent actions (**throw**) and states of being (**be** or **exist**). They differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English does not. The Greek verb (**ῥῆμα**) in its finite form has an **ending** that indicates what **person** and **number** the **subject** is. The Greek infinitive has an ending that indicates that it is unmarked for **person** and **number**.

# μι-**Verbs Contrasted with** ω-**Verbs**

**μι-Verbs** conjugate in the same way that **ω-verbs** do but employ different stems and endings in some tenses. With regard to the concepts of aspect and time, **ω-verbs** and **μι-verbs** are the same. They are also the same in how they form their augments. As is the case with **ω-verbs**, to conjugate **μι-verbs** with accuracy, you must add the correct ending to the correct tense stem.

# **The Past Indicative Augment**

Past time is indicated in verbs that begin with a consonant by adding the prefix, **ἐ-**, called the **past indicative augment**. In verbs that begin with a vowel or diphthong the past indicative augment is created as outlined in the chart found below.


The imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect indicative tenses have a past indicative augment. Consider the different ways that the English verb creates past tenses and compare and contrast them with how the Greek verb does. Also take note that when a verb has a prefix, the accent never moves beyond the past indicative augment,

**προ**εῖδον *Ι* or *they forsaw*.

### **Tense-Aspect**

Time (tense) refers to the past, present, and future. Aspect refers to whether an action is incomplete (imperfective), complete (perfective), or in a state (stative). The present tense stem, which is used to form the present and imperfect tenses, communicates an incomplete action. The beginnings and ends of the action are undefined. Thus the tense-aspect for the present is present ongoing or repeated and the tense-aspect for the imperfect is past ongoing or repeated (imperfective). The aorist tense stem communicates a completed action as a single whole. The boundaries of the action's beginning and end define the action as complete (perfective). The future tense stems have a temporal value but no aspect, showing no distinction between the imperfective (incomplete) and perfective (complete) aspect (*CGCG* 33.4–6).

# **The Gnomic Aorist**

When it refers to actions that state a general truth or commonality, the aorist tense stresses the universality of the verb's action or state of being. Read the following sentences,

τέχνη τύχην **ἔστερξε** καὶ τύχη τέχνην (Agathon, fragment 6 TrGF 39F6), *Skill loves fortune and fortune loves skill;* 

and

ῥώμη δὲ μετὰ μὲν φρονήσεως **ὠφέλησεν** (Isokrates, *To Demonikos* 5–8), *Strength combined with intelligence creates;*

and

παθόντες **ἐμάθομεν** (Greek proverb), *From suffering we learn.*

In each sentence the aorist tense—**ἔστερξε** (*loves*), **ὠφέλησεν** (*creates*), **ἐμάθομεν** (*learn*)—is used to express a timeless truth. For more examples, see *CGCG* 33.31.

# **The Aorist Contrasted with the Imperfect Tense**

Both tenses typically refer to actions that have occurred in past time. The aorist and the imperfect differ in aspect in accordance with what you have just read.

# **The First Aorist and the Second Aorist**

If the third principal part ends in **–α** or **–αμην**, it is called a first aorist and if it ends in **–ον** or **–ομην**, it is referred to as a second aorist. There is no difference in meaning. Consider the following verbs. Look at the third principal part and note whether it ends in **–α**, **–αμην** or **–ον**, **–ομην.** First aorist endings are highlighted. Second aorist endings are underlined.



1. In the top 250 vocabulary, this textbook combines the principal parts of **λέγω** and ------, **ἐρέω**.

# **The Aorist of** μι-**Verbs**

The type of aorist a **μι-verb** has is often ambiguous. Consider these **μι-verbs**,


noting that the forms marked by a single asterisk, **ἔδωκα**, **ἔθηκα**, and **-ἧκα**, are referred to as mixed aorists because they use a combination of endings from **ω-verbs** and **μι-verbs**. These third principal parts are indistinguishable from first aorist forms. For this reason, you must memorize which **μι-verbs** have a mixed aorist. The form marked by two asterisks, **ἔστην**, is called a root aorist because it uses a long-vowel grade in forming the singular and plural of the aorist active and middle. Unmarked forms **ἔδειξα**, **ἔστησα**, **ἔφησα** are first aorists and are conjugated just like first aorists of **ω-verbs**.

### **The Infinitive**

Remember that in English and in Greek the infinitive is unmarked for person and for number. Ιt is classified as a verbal noun and is best understood by thinking of its function as completing or enhancing the meaning of adjectives, clauses, nouns, and verbs. This is why the infinitive is referred to as a complement. Sometimes classified as a mood, the infinitive is potential in meaning, **ἐν δυνάμει**, because its action may or may not be realized. There are two types of infinitives, the declarative and the dynamic. Both the declarative and the dynamic infinitives refer to actions which exist **potentially** or **ἐν δυνάμει**. The dynamic infinitive is negated by the abverb **μή** *not* and not **οὐ** *not*. **οὐ** *not* typically negates the **declarative infinitive** with some exceptions.

# **The Aorist Infinitive Contrasted with the Present Infinitive**

Except in indirect statements, covered in detail in Module 25, where the infinitive stands for an original finite verb, the only difference in meaning between the aorist and present infinitives is aspectual: the aorist infinitive communicates a completed aspect as a single whole; the present infinitive has an incomplete action, whose beginnings and ends are undefined.

Compare and contrast the forms and aspects of the two infinitives:

**λέγειν** *to say* (incomplete aspect) **λέξαι** *to say* (completed aspect) **εἰπεῖν** *to say* (completed aspect) **ἔχειν** *to have* (incomplete aspect) **σχεῖν** *to have* (completed aspect) **ἐργάζεσθαι** *to do* (incomplete aspect) **ἐργάσασθαι** *to do* (completed aspect) **διδόναι** *to give* (incomplete aspect) **δοῦναι** *to give* (completed aspect)

# **Stems for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of** ω-**Verbs**

**Imperfect Active, Middle, and Passive Tense Stem.** To obtain the imperfect tense stem of **ω-verbs**, remove the ending from the first principal part. What remains is the present and imperfect active, middle, and passive tense stem. If the stem begins with a consonant, add the past indicative augment, **ἐ-**, to the stem's beginning. If the stem begins with a vowel or diphthong, augment it in accordance with the past indicative augment chart found above.

**The Aorist Active, Middle, and Passive Tense Stem of ω-verbs.** The aorist tense stems are formed from principal part III (active and middle) and principal part VI (passive). To obtain the aorist tense stem of **ω-verbs**, remove the ending from the third or sixth principal part. What remains is the aorist tense stem. In the lexical entries, these forms are already **augmented**. Consider the principal parts of **λύω**,

λύω, λύσω, **ἔ**λυσα (active and middle), λέλυκα, λέλυμαι, **ἐ**λύθην (passive),

noting that the third and sixth principal parts are already augmented and that the augmented aorist stems are **ἔλυσ-** and **ἐλύθ-**.

# **Endings for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of** ω-**Verbs**


1. In the second person singular of secondary middle and passive and secondary middle endings, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels contract: epsilon and omicron, **ε** + **ο**, becomes the diphthong **ου** and alpha and omicron, **α** + **ο**, becomes omega, **ω**.


### **First Aorist Infinitive Active**


### **Second Aorist Infinitive Active**


### **First Aorist Infinitive Middle**


### **Second Aorist Infinitive Middle**


### **Aorist Infinitive Passive**


In what follows you learn how to combine stems and endings and how to translate each form into its English equivalent.

## **Secondary Middle and Passive Endings**

The following secondary middle and passive endings are used in forming many of the tenses you learn for the middle and passive voices.

### **Secondary Middle and Passive**


It is a good idea to memorize them now.

Secondary Middle and Passive Endings. The following secondary middle and passive endings are used in forming many of the tenses you learn for the middle and

Secondary Middle and Passive Endings. The following secondary middle and passive endings are used in forming many of the tenses you learn for the middle and

**Secondary Middle and Passive** 

**Secondary Middle and Passive** 

**S P** 

**S P** 

**3rd** -το -ντο

**3rd** -το -ντο

#### **Endings in Summary** It is a good idea to memorize them now. It is a good idea to memorize them now.

passive voices.

passive voices.

The charts below restate the same information as is found above, but in a condensed form. Look over the chart and make sure that you understand how to read it. The chart below restates the same information as is found above, but in a condensed form. Look over the chart and make sure that you understand how to read it. The chart below restates the same information as is found above, but in a condensed form. Look over the chart and make sure that you understand how to read it.


These ending sets form two past tenses, the imperfect and the aorist, each differing from the other in terms of aspect not time. These ending sets form two past tenses, the imperfect and the aorist, each differing from the other in terms of aspect not time. These ending sets form two past tenses, the imperfect and the aorist, each differing from the other in terms of aspect not time.


Use these endings to form the aorist infinitive. Memorizing the endings now before reading on is recommended. Use these endings to form the aorist infinitive. Memorizing the endings now before reading on is recommended. Use these endings to form the aorist infinitive. Memorizing the endings now before reading on is recommended.

#### **Conjugation of** λέγω, ἔχω, **and** ἐργάζομαι Conjugation of **λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι,** and **τίθημι**. The principal parts are these: Conjugation of **λέγω, ἔχω, ἐργάζομαι, δίδωμι,** and **τίθημι**. The principal parts are these:

The principal parts are these:

λέγω, λέξω, ἔλεξα, ------, λέλεγμαι, ἐλέχθην ἔχω (imp. εἶχον), ἕξω or σχήσω, ἔσχον, ἔσχηκα, -ἔσχημαι, ----- ἐργάζομαι (augments to εἰ and ἠ), ἐργάσομαι, ἠργασάμην (εἰργασάμην), ------, εἴργασμαι, ἠργάσθην 284 284

1. In the top 250 vocabulary, this texbook combines the principal parts of **λέγω** and ------, **ἐρέω**: **λέγω, ἐρέω** or **λέξω, εἶπον** or **ἔλεξα, εἴρηκα, εἴρημαι** or **λέλεγμαι, ἐλέχθην** or **ἐρρήθην** *say, tell, speak*;

Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stem with the correct endings.

# **Imperfect Indicative Active of** λέγω

To obtain the imperfect tense stem of **λέγω**, remove the ending **-ω** from the first principal part. What remains is the present and imperfect active, middle, and passive tense stem, **λεγ-**. To this stem, **λεγ**-, add the past indicative augment, **ἐ-**, and the imperfect and second aorist active endings.


# **Imperfect Indicative Middle of** λέγω

Use the same augmented stem as you did for the active voice, **ἐλεγ-**. To this stem, add the imperfect and second aorist middle and passive endings.


# **Imperfect Indicative Passive of** λέγω

Use the same augmented stem as you did for the active and middle voices, **ἐλεγ-**. To this stem, add the imperfect and second aorist middle and passive endings.


# **First Aorist Indicative Active of** λέγω

To obtain the aorist tense stem of **λέγω**, remove the ending -**α** from the third principal part. What remains is the augmented aorist active and middle tense stem, **ἐλεξ-**. To this stem, **ἐλεξ-**, add the first aorist active endings.


# **First Aorist Infinitive Active of** λέγω

To obtain the stem**,** remove the past indicative augment from **ἐλεξ-**. What remains, **λεξ-**, is the unaugmented stem. To this stem, add the first aorist active infinitive ending, **-αι**.


1. Note that the first aorist infinitive active is ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus its accent is persistent. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

# **First Aorist Indicative Middle of** λέγω

Use the same stem as you did for the active voice, **ἐλεξ-**. To this augmented stem add the first aorist middle endings.


1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels contract: alpha and omicron, **α** + **ο**, to **ω**.

# **First Aorist Infinitive Middle of** λέγω

To obtain the stem remove the past indicative augment from **ἐλεξ-**. What remains is the unaugmented stem, **λεξ-**. To this stem add the first aorist middle infinitive ending, **-ασθαι**.


1. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

# **Aorist Indicative Passive of** λέγω

To obtain the aorist tense stem of **λέγω**, remove the ending **-ην** from the sixth principal part. What remains is the augmented aorist passive tense stem, **ἐλέχθ-**. To this stem, **ἐλέχθ-**, add the aorist passive endings.


# **Aorist Infinitive Passive of** λέγω

To obtain the stem remove the past indicative augment from **ἐλέχθ-**. What remains is the unaugmented stem, **λέχθ-**. To this stem, add the aorist passive infinitive ending, -**ῆναι**.


1. Remember that the aorist infinitive passive is ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus its accent is persistent. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

# **Imperfect Indicative Active of** ἔχω

To obtain the imperfect tense stem of **ἔχω**, remove the ending **-ω** from the first principal part to obtain the stem **ἔχ-**. Augment the stem, noting that the augmented stem is not the expected eta **η-**, but rather the diphthong **ει-**. To this augmented stem, **εἰχ-**, add the imperfect active endings.



1. Note that according to the chart the expected past indicative augment for **ἔχω** is **η-**. **ἔχω** is an exception to the general rule for augmenting verbs that begin with vowels.

# **Imperfect Indicative Middle of** ἔχω

Use the same augmented stem as you used for the active voice, **εἰχ-**. To this stem, add the imperfect middle and passive endings.


1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels contract: epsilon and omicron, **ε** + **ο**, to **ου**.

# **Imperfect Indicative Passive of** ἔχω

Use the same stem as you used for the active and middle voices, **εἰχ-**. To this stem, add the imperfect middle and passive endings.


1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels contract: epsilon and omicron, **ε** + **ο**, to **ου**.

# **Second Aorist Indicative Active of** ἔχω

To obtain the aorist tense stem of **ἔχω**, remove the ending -**ον** from the third principal part. What remains is the augmented aorist active and middle tense stem, **ἐσχ-**. To this stem, **ἐσχ-**, add the second aorist active endings.


# **Second Aorist Infinitive Active of** ἔχω

To obtain the stem, remove the past indicative augment from **ἐσχ-**. To this unaugmented stem, **σχ-**, add the second aorist active infinitive ending, **-εῖν**.


1. Note that the second aorist infinitive active is ALWAYS accented on the ultima. Thus its accent is persistent.

# **Second Aorist Indicative Middle of** ἔχω

Use the same stem, **ἐσχ-**, as you used for the active voice. To this augmented stem, **ἐσχ-**, add the second aorist middle endings.


1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels contract: epsilon and omicron, **ε** + **ο**, to **ου**.

# **Second Aorist Infinitive Middle of** ἔχω

To obtain the stem, remove the past indicative augment from **ἐσχ-**. To this unaugmented stem, **σχ-**, add the second aorist middle infinitive ending, -**έσθαι**.


1. Note that the second aorist infinitive middle is ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus its accent is persistent. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

# **Imperfect Indicative of** ἐργάζομαι

To obtain the imperfect tense stem of **ἐργάζομαι**, remove the ending **-ομαι** from the first principal part to obtain the stem **ἐργαζ-**. Augment the stem to an eta, **η-**. To this augmented stem, **ἠργαζ-**, add the imperfect middle and passive endings. Remember that deponent verbs are similar to **ω-verbs**, except that they have middle and passive forms but active meanings. Deponent **ω-verbs** conjugate just as **ἐργάζομαι** does. In the readings use your knowledge of **ἐργάζομαι** to recognize and translate the forms of other deponent **ω-verbs**.


1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels contract: epsilon and omicron, **ε** + **ο**, to **ου**.

# **Aorist Indicative of** ἐργάζομαι

To obtain the aorist tense stem of **ἐργάζομαι**, remove the ending **-αμην** from the third principal part to obtain the augmented stem **ἠργασ-**. To this stem, **ἠργασ-**, add the aorist middle endings.


1. In the second person singular, intervocalic sigma drops out and the vowels contract: alpha and omicron, **α** + **ο**, to **ω**.

# **Aorist Infinitive of** ἐργάζομαι

To obtain the stem of **ἐργάζομαι**, remove the augment from **ἠργασ-**. To this unaugmented stem, **ἐργασ-**, add the first aorist middle infinitive ending, **-ασθαι**.


1. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

# **Stems for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of** δίδωμι

### **Imperfect Tense Stems for the Active Voice of δίδωμι:**


### **Imperfect Tense Stem for the Middle and Passive Voice of δίδωμι:**

**short vowel grade** (use for the singular and plural) **διδο-**

### **Aorist Tense Stems for the Active Voice of δίδωμι:**


#### **Aorist Tense Stem for the Middle Voice of δίδωμι:**

#### **short vowel grade**

(use for the singular and plural) **δο-**

#### **Aorist Tense Stem for the Passive Voice of δίδωμι:**

**ω-verb consonant stem**

(use for the singular and plural)

**δοθ-**

# **Endings for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of** δίδωμι

Add these endings and the past indicative augment to the correct tense stem.

#### **Secondary Active**


#### **Secondary Middle and Passive**

(use for the imperfect middle and passive and the aorist middle)


#### **Secondary Passive**

(use for the aorist passive)


# **Conjugation of** δίδωμι

The principal parts are these:

δίδωμι, δώσω, ἔδωκα, δέδωκα, δέδομαι, ἐδόθην

Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stem with the correct endings.

# **Imperfect Indicative Active of** δίδωμι

**Singular:** long vowel grade, **διδου-** + past indicative augment and secondary active endings. **Plural:** short vowel grade, **διδο-**, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings.


# **Imperfect Indicative Middle of** δίδωμι

Short vowel grade stem, **διδο-**, + past indicative augment and secondary middle and passive endings.


# **Imperfect Indicative Passive of** δίδωμι

Short vowel grade stem, **διδο-**, + past indicative augment and secondary middle and passive endings.


# **Aorist Indicative Active of** δίδωμι

**Singular: ω-**verb augmented stem, **ἐδωκ-**, + first aorist endings. **Plural:** short vowel grade stem, **δο-**, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings.


# **Aorist Infinitive Active of** δίδωμι

Long vowel grade, **δου-**, + active infinitive ending, **-ναι**.


1. Note that infinitives with the ending **-ναι** are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus their accent is persistent. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

# **Aorist Indicative Middle of** δίδωμι

Short vowel grade, **δο-**, + past indicative augment and secondary middle endings.


1. Note that in the second person singular intervocalic sigma drops out and the two omicrons, **ο + ο**, contract to the diphthong **ου**.

# **Aorist Infinitive Middle of** δίδωμι

Short vowel grade, **δο-,** + middle infinitive ending, **-σθαι.**


# **Aorist Indicative Passive of** δίδωμι

ω-verb augmented consonant stem, **ἐδοθ-**, + **ω-**verb aorist passive endings.


# **Aorist Infinitive Passive of** δίδωμι

**ω-**verb consonant stem, **δοθ-**, + aorist passive infinitive ending, **-ηναι.**


1. Note that infinitives with the ending **-ναι** are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus their accent is persistent. Remember that final **-αι** and **–οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

# **Stems for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of** τίθημι

### **Imperfect Tense Stems for the Active Voice of τίθημι:**


#### **Imperfect Tense Stem for the Middle and Passive Voice of τίθημι:**

**short vowel grade** (use for the singular and plural) **τιθε-**

#### **Aorist Tense Stems for the Active Voice of τίθημι:**


#### **Aorist Tense Stem for the Middle Voice of τίθημι:**

**short vowel grade** (use for the singular and plural) **θε-**

#### **Aorist Tense Stem for the Passive Voice of τίθημι:**

**ω-verb consonant stem** (use for the singular and plural) **τεθ-**

# **Endings for the Imperfect and Aorist Tenses of** τίθημι

Add these endings to the correct tense stem.


#### **Secondary Active**

#### **Secondary Middle and Passive**

(use for the imperfect middle and passive and the aorist middle)


#### **Secondary Passive**

(use for the aorist passive)


# **Conjugation of** τίθημι

The principal parts are these:

τίθημι, θήσω, ἔθηκα, τέθηκα, τέθειμαι, ἐτέθην

Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stem with the correct endings.

# **Imperfect Indicative Active of** τίθημι

**Singular:** long vowel grades, **τιθη-** and **τιθει-**, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings; **plural:** short vowel grade, **τιθε-**, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings.


# **Imperfect Indicative Middle of** τίθημι

Short vowel grade stem, **τιθε-**, + past indicative augment and secondary middle and passive endings.


# **Imperfect Indicative Passive of** τίθημι

Short vowel grade stem, **τιθε-**, + past indicative augment and secondary middle and passive endings.



# **Aorist Indicative Active of** τίθημι

**Singular:** augmented ω-verb stem, **ἐθηκ-**, + first aorist active endings. **Plural:**  short vowel grade stem, **θε-**, + past indicative augment + secondary active endings.


# **Aorist Infinitive Active of** τίθημι

Long vowel grade, **θει-**, + active infinitive ending, **-ναι**.


1. Note that infinitives with the ending **-ναι** are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus their accent is persistent. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

# **Aorist Indicative Middle of** τίθημι

Short vowel grade, **θε-**, + past indicative augment and secondary middle endings.


1. Note that in the second person singular intervocalic sigma drops out and the epsilon and omicron, **ε + ο**, contract to the diphthong **ου**.

# **Aorist Infinitive Middle of** τίθημι

Short vowel grade, **θε-**, + aorist middle infinitive ending, **-σθαι**.


# **Aorist Indicative Passive of** τίθημι

ω-verb augmented consonant stem, **ἐτεθ-**, + **ω-**verb aorist passive endings.


# **Aorist Infinitive Passive of** τίθημι

**ω-**verb unaugmented consonant stem, **τεθ-**, + aorist infinitive passive ending, **-ηναι**.


1. Note that infinitives with the ending **-ναι** are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus their accent is persistent. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

**Practice Translating the Imperfect and Aorist Indicative Active.** Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key.


### **Vocabulary**

**\*αἱρέω, αἱρήσω, εἷλον** *take, seize, grab, capture;* (mid.) *choose*

**\*γράφω, γράψω, ἔγραψα** *write*

**\*ἐθέλω, ἐθελήσω, ἠθέλησα** *wish, be willing*

**\*ἔρομαι (εἴρομαι), ἐρήσομαι (εἰρήσομαι), ἠρόμην** *ask*

**\*εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον** *find*

**\*ἔχω, ἕξω** or **σχήσω, ἔσχον** *have, hold; be able* + inf.; **καλῶς ἔχειν** *to be well*

**\*ζάω** *live*

**\*κελεύω, κελεύσω, ἐκέλευσα** *bid, order, command*

**\*μέλλω, μελλήσω, ἐμέλλησα** *be about to, be going to; be likely to* + inf. (fut. inf. in Attic)

#### **\*πάσχω, πείσομαι, ἔπαθον** *suffer, have done to one*

**\*πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα** *persuade*; (mid. or pass.) *listen to, obey* + dat. or gen.

**\*ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα** *do, make, cause;* (mid.) *consider*

#### **\*φεύγω, φεύξομαι, ἔφυγον** *flee*

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Philoktetes, Φιλοκτήτης.** Philoktetes was born in Thessaly to Poias and Demonassa, king and queen of Meliboia, a Thessalian city. A Greek hero, Philoktetes was a famous archer, a suitor to Helen, and a participant in the Trojan War. At least four different tragic plays told his story. Sophokles' version is the only one to survive. In *Iliad* Book 2, Homer mentions his exile on the island of Lemnos, his snake-bite, and his recall from Lemnos back to Troy. Philoktetes enters the story of Herakles when Herakles, in pain from wearing a shirt poisoned by the blood of Nessos, asks him to end his agony by lighting his funeral pyre. Previously, Herakles had asked several people for assistance but they all refused. Philoktetes agrees to help him and lights the pyre. In gratitude Herakles gives him his bow and poisoned arrows. Philoktetes was also a suitor to Helen. All suitors swore an oath to Helen's mortal father, Tyndareus, promising that they would defend Helen and the suitor chosen to be her spouse. Menelaos was chosen and married her. When Paris abducted Helen, Philoktetes honored his oath and participated in the quest to reclaim Menelaos' bride. En route to Troy with many other Greeks, Philoktetes suffered a wound to his foot. The wound festered. The smell was so foul and Philoktetes' suffering so loud that the Greeks left him stranded on the island of Lemnos. Ten years later because there was a prophecy that they would not conquer Troy without his help and his bow, the Greeks returned to Lemnos to ask Philoktetes to help them win the war and Helen back. Sophokles' play, *Philoktetes*, concerns convincing, forcing, or tricking Philoktetes into returning to Troy. Odysseus counsels using trickery. Neoptolemos, Akhilleus' son, counsels force and transparency.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Sophokles' *Philoktetes* (**Φιλοκτήτης**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII and the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

**Νεοπτόλεμος:** οὐκ αἰσχρὸν ἡμῖν δῆτα τὸ ψευδὲς λέγειν; **Ὀδυσσεύς:** οὐκ εἰ τὸ σωτήριον γε τὸ ψεῦδος φέρει. **Νεοπτόλεμος:** πῶς οὖν ἔχει τις βλέπων ταῦτα τολμᾷ λακεῖν; **Ὀδυσσεύς:** εἴ τι δρᾷς εἰς κέρδος, οὐκ ὀκνεῖν πρέπει.


### **Adverbs and Verbs**



*learning how to; understanding*

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentence found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

σὲ σοφόν τε καὶ ἀγαθὸν σὲ καλέουσιν ἅμα.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

**Module 23 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Nouns**

**δῆμος, δήμου ὁ** *people*

**στρατηγός, στρατηγοῦ ὁ** *general*

**τρόπος, τρόπου ὁ** *way, manner, turn;* (pl.) *character*

**υἱός, υἱοῦ ὁ** *son, child*

**ψυχή, ψυχῆς ἡ** *life, soul, spirit*

**Verbs**

**ἀπόλλυμι, ἀπολέω, ἀπώλεσα** (trans.) or **ἀπωλόμην** (intrans.), **ἀπολώλεκα** (trans.) or **ἀπόλωλα** (intrans.), **------, ------** *kill, lose*; (mid. and intrans.) *die, cease to exist* 

**γράφω, γράψω, ἔγραψα**, **γέγραφα, γέγραμμαι, ἐγράφην** *write* 

**δείκνῡμι, δείξω (δέξω), ἔδειξα (ἔδεξα), δέδειχα, δέδειγμαι, ἐδείχθην** *show, display*

**χρή (**inf. **χρῆναι < χρὴ + εἶναι;** imp. **ἐχρῆν** or **χρῆν < χρὴ + ἦν;** fut. **χρήσει), χρῆσται (χρὴ + ἔσται)** *it is necessary* + inf.

# **Etymology Corner XXIII by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

Technical Terms 19, Parts of Speech

**Verbs, cont.** As with **tense** and **tense** being unrelated homonyms, grammatical **mood** comes from a different root than that of your emotional mood. Grammatical **moods** are not about how a verb is feeling, but which *mode of expression* it is in. In fact, **mode** shifted to **mood** in Middle English and is attested in grammatical texts around 1450 CE. Though identifying **indicatives**, **optatives**, and **subjunctives** may make you cranky some days, that's your problem, not Greek's. Those poor verbs are just trying to signify a quality of the verb. Each of the moods is aptly named as well.


**What to Study and Do 23.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have memorized the verb endings for the imperfect and the aorist and that you can decline these tenses from memory. Also make sure you know how to put augments on and take them off when forming the imperfect and aorist tenses. Finally, have a good understanding of the aspectual differences between the aorist and the imperfect tenses.

**Learning Tip 23: Use Word Numbers.** Remembering dates and long strings of numbers is challenging. Consider the phrase,

American presidential candidates

and this number

347 294 012 157 211 10

Which is easier to remember, the number or the phrase? The phrase, of course. In this learning tip, you learn how to use word numbers in order to remember dates. Each number from 0–9 represents specific sounds.

0 = soft c (dice), s, and z 1 = d and t 2 = n 3 = m 4 = r 5 = l 6 = soft ch (Chigago), sh, soft g (gym), and j 7 = hard c (coat), hard g, k 8 = f and v 9 = b and p

The vowel sounds, **a**, **e**, **i**, **o**, **u** and the letters **w**, **h**, **y** are not represented by a number. They are blanks. The word **c**a**v**e represents the number 78. The word **l**a**m**e**l**y from stepping into Herakleitos' river represents the number 535. The words **l**ea**v**e**n** from Anne of Green Gables' making bread as she reads Anakreon's lost corpus represents the number 582. For Mimnermos the word **J**a**m**e**s** of Jesse **J**a**m**e**s**' making fun of me because **I'm nervous** to eat a bun filled with snake eyes represents the number 630. **Sh**i**ms** that I use to remove **sap** from my **shoe** for Sappho also represents the number 630. The television was invented in 1926. **P**u**nch** represents the number 926. You can imagine yourself punching the TV to make it come to life. For the number 1926, we only represent the last three numbers. In 1942 the first computer was invented. Imagine a computer the shape and size of a **b**a**rn** being assembled in an even bigger **b**a**rn** by **barn** yard animals. The one is again omitted. Remember this number,

347 294 012 157 211 10?

The phrase A**m**e**r**i**c**a**n pr**e**s**i**d**e**nt**ia**l c**a**nd**i**d**a**t**e**s** represents it:

A**m** (3) e**r** (4) i**c** (7) a**n** (2) **p** (9) **r** (4) e**s** (0) i**d** (1) e**n** (2) **t** (1) ia**l** (5) **c** (7) a**n** (2) **d** (1) i**d** (1) a**t** (1) e**s** (0).

For additional strategies in using numbers as a way to remember essential information, read Kevin Horsley's book *Unlimited Memory* (2014) and Tony Buzan's *Use Your Perfect Memory* (1990).

# Module 24 **Contract Verbs**

# **The Verb**

In Greek and in English verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs are words that represent actions (**throw**) and states of being (**be** or **exist**). They differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English does not. The Greek verb (**ῥῆμα**) in its finite form has an **ending** that indicates what **person** and **number** the **subject** is. The Greek infinitive has an ending that indicates that it is unmarked for **person** and **number**.

# **Contract Verbs**

As you have seen in Modules 10, 17, and 19, contractions **occur** when the stem of the first or second principal part ends in an alpha or epsilon. Contractions also occur when the stem ends in an omicron. These vowels contract with the initial vowel or diphthong of the ending in specific ways.

# **Accenting Contract Verbs**

When creating the form of a contract verb, you must accent before you contract: **ποιοῦμεν** < **ποιέομεν**, not **ποίουμεν**.

# **Contract Verbs in Alpha**

If the stem of principal part I or II ends in alpha, the alpha contracts with the endings in accordance with the following chart:


# **Present Indicative Active of** ὁράω

To the present active, middle, and passive tense stem **ὁρα-**, add the correct endings.


# **Present Infinitive Active of** ὁράω

To the tense stem **ὁρα-**, add the active infinitive ending.

ὁρᾶν (ὁράειν < ὁράεεν)

1. Note the absence of the iota subscript.

# **Imperfect Indicative Active of** ὁράω

To the augmented tense stem **ἑωρα-**, add the correct endings.



# **Contract Verbs in Epsilon**

If the stem of principal part I or II ends in epsilon, the epsilon contracts with the endings in accordance with the following chart:


# **Present Indicative Active of** δοκέω

To the present active, middle, and passive tense stem **δοκε-**, add the correct endings.


# **Present Infinitive Active of** δοκέω

To the present active, middle, and passive tense stem **δοκε-**, add the active infinitive ending.

δοκεῖν (δοκέειν)

# **Imperfect Indicative Active of** δοκέω

To the augmented tense stem **ἐδοκ-**, add the correct endings.



### **Contract Verbs in Omicron**

If the stem of principal part I or II ends in omicron, the omicron contracts with the endings in accordance with the following chart:


# **Present Indicative Active of** ἀξιόω

To the present active, middle, and passive tense stem **ἀξιο-**, add the correct endings.


# **Present Infinitive Active of** ἀξιόω

To the present active, middle, and passive tense stem **ἀξιο-**, add the active infinitive ending.

ἀξιοῦν (ἀξιόειν < ἀξιόεεν)

1. Note the absence of the iota.

# **Imperfect Indicative Active of** ἀξιόω

To the augmented tense stem **ἠξιο-**, add the correct endings.



**Practice Translating Contract Verbs.** Translate the below sentences, adapted from a variety of ancient Greek writers. To come to an accurate understanding of the sentences, use your knowledge of endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or function, remember to use the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I and the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII to assist you. After you finish translating each sentence, check your understanding with the answer in the Answer Key. After you have read through all of the sentences once, read them again at least two more times. In each subsequent reading, your understanding improves.


### **Adverbs, Conjunctions, and Verbs**

**\*αἱρέω, αἱρήσω, εἷλον (ἑλεῖν)** *take, seize, grab, capture;* (mid.) *choose* **\*καλέω, καλέω, ἐκάλεσα** *call*


### **Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronouns**

*well*

**αἴτιος, αἰτίᾱ, αἴτιον** *responsible for, the cause of, guilty of* + gen. **ἑτοῖμος, ἑτοίμη, ἑτοῖμον** *at hand, ready, prepared, able* + inf.


*song; saying; verse*

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Euripides' *Helen* (**Ἑλένη**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII and the **Case and Function Chart**  in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

**Γραῦς:** τίς πρὸς πύλαις; οὐκ ἀπαλλάξῃ δόμων; πρὸς αὐλείοις στήσεις πύλαις ὄχλον παρέχων δεσπόταις; εἰ σὺ εἶ Ἕλλην, καταθανῇ· αὐτοῖς γὰρ οὐκ ἐπιστροφαί.

**Μενέλαος:** ὦ γραῖα, σοὶ τὰ αὐτὰ ταῦτ' ἔπη καὶ ἄλλως λέγειν ἔξεστι· πείσομαι γὰρ ἀλλὰ δεῖ ἀνιέναι λόγον.

5 **Γραῦς:** χρὴ δ' ἀπέρχεσθαι. ἐμοὶ γὰρ τοῦτο πρόσκειται, ξένε· ἔξεστι μηδένα πελάζειν τοῖς Ἑλλήνων δόμοις.

**Μενέλαος:** τί προσειλέεις χεῖρα καί με ὠθῇ βίᾳ; **Γραῦς:** πείθῃ οὐδὲν τούτων ἃ λέγω. σὺ δ' αἴτιος. **Μενέλαος:** κελεύω σοι ἀγγέλλειν δεσπόταις τοῖς σοῖς . . .


### **Adverbs and Verbs**




1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentence found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

ὀχληρῶς ἔχεις καὶ τάχ' ὠθήσομαι βίᾳ.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

### **Prophecy and Seers**

Many Greeks believed in the existence of a multitude of divine beings and believed that the deities took such an interest in mortal affairs that they intervened, caused events to happen, and predicted the future. Seers or prophets served as intermediaries between the divine and mortal spheres. The Greeks consulted seers for a variety of different reasons including decisions like should they marry, should they go to war, and who their parents were. Called a bastard while dining at a banquet, Oidipous consulted the oracle at Delphi to find out who his parents were. Uncertain about whether he should wage war against the Persians, Kroisos (Croesus), king of the Lydians, consulted many oracles to determine which ones were genuine. Kroisos' test affirmed the validity of the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. Kroisos offered the oracle abundant gifts and asked if he should wage war against the Persians. To both Oidipous and Kroisos the oracle gave ambiguous answers. To Oidipous it replied that he would kill his dad and marry his mom. To Kroisos it replied that if he went to war, he would destroy a great empire. Oidipous tried to keep the oracle's prediction from coming true by avoiding his parents. In fleeing from the prophecy and whom he thought were his parents, Oidipous fulfilled it, killing his biological dad Laios and marrying his birth mother Jocasta. Kroisos waged war against the Persians and destroyed a great empire, his own. To the common question of marrying, the Delphic oracle gave straightforward yes or no answers. Consulting the oracle about possibly doing something that was considered wrong—like handing over to an enemy someone to whom you have granted asylum—could result in divine vengeance and your death (Herodotos, Book I.159). When the Greeks, intent on sailing to Troy to recover Helen, were at Aulis stranded by contrary winds, they consulted a seer who replied that favorable winds would be granted if Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigeneia to the goddess Artemis. It may be that Artemis' demand for a sacrifice was her divine punishment of Agamemnon for wanting to wage the Trojan war, causing much needless death and suffering. Dreams and portents also serve as intermediaries, giving mortals an indication of what may or may not happen. Today prediction, prophecy, and portents remain an integral part of our culture and play a significant role in literature, in science, and in people's belief systems. Einstein's theory of relativity predicts that the past, present, and future all exist concurrently. Time has been proven to be relative, slowing down the faster we approach the speed of light. If the future is already here, does this mean that prediction is merely the statement of what already is?

**Module 24 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Adjective and Nouns**

**ἡμέρᾱ, ἡμέρᾱς ἡ** *day*

**ἱππεύς, ἱππῆος (ἱππέως) ὁ** *knight, cavalryman; horseman, rider*  **ἵππος, ἵππου ἡ ὁ** *horse; (fem.) cavalry* **νέος, νέᾱ, νέον** *new, fresh, young; strange, unexpected*  **ποταμός, ποταμοῦ ὁ** *river* **τέλος, τέλεος (τέλους) τό** *end, boundary; power; office;* (acc.) *finally*  **τόπος, τόπου ὁ** *place, spot* **Verbs πάσχω, πείσομαι, ἔπαθον, πέπονθα, ------, ------** *suffer, have done to one* **φεύγω, φεύξομαι, ἔφυγον, πέφευγα, ------, ------** *flee; be banished; be in exile; be a defendant*

# **Etymology Corner XXIV by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 20, Parts of Speech

**Verbs, cont.** The three **voices** (from Latin **vox** *voice*) in Greek sit pretty close to the Latin roots.


**What to Study and Do 24.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you are able to accent and to contract stem vowels with endings. Also make sure that you understand how to translate and identify each form.

**Learning Tip 24: Continuous and Discontinuous Learning.** We can program machines to memorize and to analyze, both left brain functions. We use the creative right side of the brain differently. When we first encounter new things, the right half of the brain processes them. This learning is discontinuous because it does not process information through analysis and logic. Rather, it engages in lantern-type processing, taking in a lot of information without applying rules. We can program a machine to accent Greek words accurately. We cannot program a machine to create new ways of thinking about culture, language, and living well. Discontinuity enables new insights, different ways of thinking, and the reframing of information in unexpected ways.

# Module 25 **The Infinitive in Indirect Statement and** πρίν**- and** ὥστε**-Clauses**

# **The Infinitive**

Remember that in English and in Greek the infinitive is unmarked for person and for number. Ιt is classified as a verbal noun and is best understood by thinking of its function as completing or enhancing the meaning of adjectives, clauses, nouns, and verbs. This is why the infinitive is referred to as complement. Sometimes classified as a mood, the infinitive is potential in meaning, **ἐν δυνάμει**, because its action may or may not be realized.

# **The Declarative and Dynamic Infinitives**

There are two types of infinitives, the declarative and the dynamic. You learned about the dynamic infinitive in Module 17. Both the declarative and the dynamic infinitives refer to actions which exist **potentially** or **ἐν δυνάμει**. The dynamic infinitive is negated by the abverb **μή** *not*, and not **οὐ** *not*. **οὐ** *not* typically negates the **declarative infinitive**, though there are some exceptions. For more on the **declarative** and **dynamic infinitives**, see *CGCG* 51.

# **The Declarative Infinitive**

The declarative infinitive is referred to as a complement because it completes the meaning of verbs of belief, opinion, and speech, introducing what is referred to as indirect statement. The declarative infinitive expresses the content of someone's speech or belief. Note that this content, as is true of the content of the dynamic infinitive, may or may not be true. In the sentences,

ποιεῖν **φημὶ** αὐτοὺς ἃ βούλονται, *I say that they are doing what they want,*

and

αὐτοὶ μέντοι ἐκ Κρήτης **φασὶ** εἶναι, *they say they are from Κrete,*

the subject **I** of **φημί** *I say* and the subject **they** of **φασί** *they say* represent what the speakers believe to be true. Others may disagree. And so the actions of the infinitives **ποιέειν** *to do* and **εἶναι** *to be* are said to exist potentially. The introductory verbs **φημί** and **φασί** are called head verbs because the action takes place in the head. For more information on the declarative infinitive, see *CGCG* 51.19–27.

### **Examples of verbs of belief and opinion:**

**γίγνωσκω** *judge* **δοκέω** *think* **ἡγέομαι** *believe* **λογίζομαι** *reckon* **νομίζω** *believe* **οἴομαι (οἶμαι)** *think* **πιστεύω** *trust* **ὑπολαμβάνω** *understand* **ὑποπτεύω** *suspect* **φαινομαι** *appear*

### **Examples of verbs of speaking:**

**ἀγγέλλω** *announce* **ἀκούω** *hear, am told that* **δηλόω** *make clear* **λέγω** *say* **φημί** *say*

**Practice Translating Direct Statement.** Translate these direct statements. Check yourself with the answers that follow.


### **Vocabulary**


### **Translations**


**Practice Translating Indirect Statement.** Νοw translate these same sentences which have been placed in indirect statement. Check yourself with the answers that follow.


### **Vocabulary**

**Δαρεῖος, Δαρείου ὁ** *Dareios* (*Darius*), I the Great, third king of the Akhaimenids, defeated the Magi to come to power; it is estimated that Dareios ruled over 50 million people, about 44% of the world's population c. 550–486

**\*ἔφη** *he, she, it said*

**\*λέγω, λέξω** or **ἐρέω**, **ἔλεξα** or **εἶπον** *say, tell, speak*

### **ὀρθῶς** *correctly*

**Πίνδαρος, Πινδάρου ὁ** *Pindaros* (*Pindar*), a Theban and one of the nine Greek lyric poets, best known for his Odes, c. 522–443

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

### **Translations**


Compare and contrast the two sets of sentences, taking careful note of these points:


• When you parse, refer to the subject of the infinitive as a subject accusative and to the infinitive as the main verb in indirect statement.

**Practice Translating Subject of Head Verb and Infinitive the Same I.** Sometimes the subject of the head verb and the subject of the infinitive are the same. In the sentence, **you say you can relax on both sides of the tracks**, the subject **you** of **you say** and the subject **you** of **you can relax** are the same. For practice, translate these same sentences which have been changed so that the subject of the head verb and the subject of at least one of the infinitives are the same and indicated by underlining. Check yourself with the answers that follow.


### **Vocabulary**

**\*ἔφασαν** *they said*

**\*νομίζω** *believe, think, have the custom of, hold as custom* 

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

### **Translations**


**Practice Translating Subject of Head Verb and Infinitive the Same II.** As noted above, when the subject of the head verb and the subject of the infinitive are the same, there is no separate subject accusative and all subject modifiers remain nominative. For further practice consider these examples. Check yourself with the answers that follow.


### **Answers**


**Practice Parsing Indirect Statement in English.** Consider these English sentences that are based on a story in Herodotos concerning Kroisos and Adrastos. For each sentence parse the words by specifying which case each word would be in if you translated them into Greek and by explaining what function the case has. It may be helpful to use the **Case and Function Chart**.


Check the answers in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word is parsed as it is.

# πρίν-**Clauses**

**πρίν** *before, until* or **πρὶν ἤ** *before, until* may be followed by a finite verb or by an infinitive. When the main verb is negated, **πρίν** is typically followed by a finite verb of the aorist tense. Otherwise **πρίν** is followed by an infinitive and should be translated by its English equivalent *before*. As with the declarative infinitive in indirect statement, the subject of the infinitive is placed in the accusative case unless the subject of the main verb and the infinitive are the same. When they are the same, there is no separate subject accusative and all subject modifiers remain nominative.

**Practice Translating πρίν-Clauses I.** Translate these sentences, excerpted from Herodotos, which have their subjects changed to the nominative and their infinitives changed to finite verbs. Check yourself with the answers that follow.


### **Vocabulary**

**ἀναπλώω (ἀναπλέω), ἀναπλώσω, ἀνέπλωσα** *sail up*

**ἀναφαίνω (-φαίνω, -φανέω, -ἔφηνα, -πέφαγκα or -πέφηνα, -πέφασμαι, -ἐφάνθην or -ἐφάνην)** *make to give light*; (pass.) *be shown forth, appear*

**βασιλεύω, βασιλεύσω, ἐβασίλευσα** *rule* + gen.

**\*γίγνομαι, γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην** *be, be born*

**\*ἥκω, ἥξω** *have come, be present*

**καταστρέφω, -στρέψω, -ἔστρεψα** *turn down, trample*; (mid.) *subdue*

**Λυδοί, Λυδῶν οἱ** *the Lydians*

**\*μέγαλοι, μεγάλων οἱ** *big, great, large*

**μύδρος, μύδρου ὁ** *lump of iron*

**Πέρσης, Πέρσου (-εω) ὁ** *a Persian*

**Σάρδεις, -εων (-ιων) αἱ (Σάρδις (acc.))** *Sardis*, capital of Lydia, and principal city of Persia, located near the coast of Asia Minor

**Φωκαίη, Φωκαίης ἡ** *Phokaia*, a Greek city on the western coast of Turkey

**Ψαμμήτιχος, Ψαμμητίχου ὁ** *Psammetikhos*, king of Egypt, c. 664 BCE

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

### **Translations**


**Practice Translating πρίν-Clauses II.** Now translate these same sentences, paying particular attention to the changes that have occurred in the **πρίνclauses**. Check yourself with the answers that follow.


### **Vocabulary**



1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

### **Translations**


Compare and contrast the two sets of sentences, taking careful note of these items:


# ὥστε-**Clauses or Result Clauses**

**ὥστε** when followed by a finite verb in the indicative creates a clause that is referred to as **actual result**. **ὥστε** when followed by an infinitive creates a clause that is referred to as **natural result**. In actual result the emphasis is on the factual occurrence of the action. Natural result emphasizes the natural or inevitable occurrence of the action, which may or may not have actually occurred. As with the declarative infinitive in indirect statement, the subject of the infinitive is placed in the accusative case unless the subject of the main verb and the infinitive are the same. When they are the same, there is no separate subject accusative and all subject modifiers remain nominative.

**Practice Translating Actual Result.** Translate these sentences adapted from their originals. They have finite verbs in their **ὥστε**-clauses. Check your understanding with the translations that follow.


### **Vocabulary**



**θυγάτηρ, θυγατέρος** or **θυγατρός ἡ** *daughter* **ψῆφος, ψήφου ἡ** *pebble, stone*

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

### **Translations**


**Practice Translating Natural Result I.** Translate these sentences adapted from their originals. They have been removed from their **ὥστε**-clause with their infinitives changed to finite verbs. Check yourself with the translations that follow.


### **Vocabulary**

**Ἅιδης, Ἅιδου ὁ** *Hades*

**\*ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ** *man, husband*

**\*βίος, βίου ὁ** *life*

**βοτήρ, βοτῆρος ὁ** *herdsman*

**ἐντίθημι, ἐνθήσω, ἐνέθηκα** *place, put*

**ἥδομαι** *delight in; take pleasure, rejoice; be delighted with* + dat.

**\*θνῄσκω, θανέομαι, ἔθανον** *die, perish*

**\*λαμβάνω, λήψομαι**, **ἔλαβον** *take, receive, capture*

**ξένος (ξεῖνος), ξένου (ξείνου) ὁ** *stranger; guest-friend*

**\*ὁράω, ὄψομαι, εἶδον (ἰδεῖν)** *see*

**οὐκέθ' = οὐκέτι** *no more, no longer, no further*

**ὕμνος, ὕμνου ὁ** *hymn, song*

**\*χείρ, χειρός ἡ (**dat pl. **χερσίν)** *hand; force, army*

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

### **Translations**


**Practice Translating Natural Result II.** Translate these sentences that now have their verbs in the **ὥστε**-clause changed into infinitives. Note how the infinitive functions in each **ὥστε**-clause.


### **Vocabulary**

**\*ἄγω, ἄξω, ἤγαγον** *do, drive, lead;* **χάριν ἄγω** *I give thanks*

**Ἄλκηστις, Ἀλκήστιδος ἡ** *Alkestis*

**ἤμπλακον (aorist)** *miss, fail, come short of* + gen.; *lose, be bereft of* + gen.

**ἄνω** *up, above*

**γλῶσσα γλώσσης ἡ** *tongue, language*

**\*γυνή, γυναικός ἡ** *woman, wife*

**ἐσθλός, ἐσθλή, ἐσθλόν** *noble, fine, good*

**ἐφευρίσκω, ἐφευρήσω, ἐφηῦρον** *discover*

**μέλος, μέλεος (-ους) τό** *limb, song*

**Ὀρφεύς, Ὀρφέως ὁ** *Orpheus*, Argonaut and divine singer, able to charm animals with song

### **σοφῶς** *wisely*

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

### **Translations**


**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Euripides' *Helen* (**Ἑλένη**). Do not write down your translation. Doing so slows the learning process. Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII at the back of the book and the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the answers in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

**Γραῦς:** τί βλέφαρα τέγγεις δάκρυσι; πρὸς τίν' οἰκτρὸς εἶ; **Μενέλαος:** πρὸς τὰς πάροιθεν συμφορὰς εὐδαίμονας. **Γραῦς:** οὔκουν ἀπελθὼν δάκρυα σοῖς δώσεις φίλοις; **Μενέλαος:** τίς δ' ἥδε χώρα; τίνος δὲ βασίλειοι δόμοι;

5 **Γραῦς:** Πρωτεὺς τάδ' οἰκεῖ δώματ', Αἴγυπτος δὲ γῆ.

**Μενέλαος:** Αἴγυπτος; πρὸς ποίαν δύστηνον ἔπλευσα χώραν ἄρα; **Γραῦς:** τί δὴ τὸ Νείλου μέμφῃ γάνος; **Μενέλαος:** οὐ τοῦτ' ἐμέμφθην· τὰς ἐμὰς στένω τύχας. **Γραῦς:** πολλοὶ κακῶς πράσσουσι, οὐ σὺ δὴ μόνος.


#### **Adverbs and Verbs**




1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give case and function. For verbs, give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, specify the noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

γέλως ἄκαιρος πᾶσι βροτοῖς φέρει δεινὸν κακόν.

Λακεδαίμονος γῆς δεῦρο ἐνόστησ' ἄπο.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

**Module 25 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is an essential building block to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words, the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Adjectives**

**ἀληθής, ἀληθές** *true*

**ἅπας, ἅπασα, ἅπαν** *all, each, every, whole*

**δεινός, δεινή, δεινόν** *awesome, fearsome, terrible;* **δεινὸς λέγειν** *clever at speaking*

**εὐθύς, εὐθεῖα, εὐθύ** *straight, direct*

**μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα** *big, great*

**πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν** *all, each, every, whole*

**πολύς, πολλή, πολύ** *much, many*

**ταχύς, ταχεῖα, ταχύ** *swift* 

#### **Verb**

**ἀφικνέομαι, ἀφίξομαι, ἀφικόμην, ------, ἀφῖγμαι, ------** *arrive, reach, come to*

### **Religion and Death**

Today there are approximately 10,000 religions, though 84% of people follow these six: Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, folk religion, Judaism. The first records of polytheistic religions date to about 5,000 years ago. Animism, the belief that everything possesses a divine element, appears to predate polyand mono-theism. Though the Greek religion was polytheistic, it has animistic qualities to it.

From the literature that has survived, we can generalize about Greek belief in the divine, with the caveat that not all Greeks believed the same things. Some Greeks were atheists. Others agnostic. Some believed in one god. Others believed in gods different from the ones depicted in the *Iliad*, *Odyssey,* and *Theogony*, though it is guessed that most Greeks believed in them. As is true when discussing events far removed from our own time, we often come to conclusions based on incomplete evidence and as additional evidence comes to light we adjust our thinking accordingly. More evidence tends to complicate our views. Complication that admits of greater difference and diversity is generally desirable.

Greek religion involves a complicated relationship between mortals and immortals. Some big picture items are these three. First, Greeks honor the gods in exchange for something material on earth in a *quid pro quo* exchange. A Greek would pray to a deity asking her to accomplish something. In return the petitioner would offer devotion and sacrifice. For example, Sappho petitions Aphrodite to win over for her the woman she loves. In return Sappho offers Aphrodite her devotion (Fragment 1, West). Second, should something be amiss, Greeks would consult a seer or oracle to determine which god had been offended and how to appease the deity. Once they determined which god was angry and why, they would offer the required appeasement, typically a sacrifice. In the *Iliad*, Agamemnon offers a sacrifice to the priest Khryses and to the god Apollo in appeasement for his mistreating Khryses and for his threatening to abuse his daughter Khryseis. Third, gods punished wrongdoing. Should you act or even think about acting in a way that violated Greek customary behavior, a god could punish you, your family members, those around you, or even take out their punishment against a relative many years later, even after you have died (Solon, Fragment 13, West). In Herodotos' *Histories*, Kroisos suffers because of his relative Gyges' wrongs, committed four generations before Kroisos was born. In Aiskhylos' *Agamemnon*, Artemis may be asking Agamemnon to sacrifice his daughter Iphigeneia in order to punish him proleptically for fighting a costly war.

Greek attitudes toward death are also complicated. Great deeds and works of art were a way for a Greek to achieve a quasi-immorality. In the *Iliad*, Akhilleus has two fates, a long life of anonymity or a short life with lots of honor. Though he agonizes over the choice, Akhilleus dies young on the battlefield and is immortalized by Homer. A couple of hundred years later, Herodotos writes his *Histories* to preserve for eternity the reasons why the Greeks fought the barbarians and the great deeds that the two accomplished. By writing it he achieves his own immortality, and is kept alive by those who continue to read his work. Building on Herodotos' accomplishment, Thoukydides writes his history as a possession for all time, **κτῆμα ἐς αἰεί**, reasoning that as long as human nature remains similar we will find meaning and relevance in what he writes. Another strain of Greek thought argues that best was never to have been born at all and second best was to die as soon as possible. In the *Moralia*, "Letter to Apollonius, 115 a-c", Plutarch ascribes the quote to Aristoteles' lost dialogue **Περὶ ψυχῆς** *On the Soul* wherein the character Silenos quotes Eternity, **μὴ γενέσθαι μὲν ἄριστον πάντων, τὸ δὲ τεθνάναι τοῦ ζῆν ἐστι κρεῖττον**, *best of all is not to have been born and death is better than life*. Other sources offer the opposite viewpoint. In Book 11 of Homer's *Odyssey*, Akhilleus' shade tells Odysseus that he would prefer being a poor servant to being king of the dead. Numerous other examples from the Greek records reject death as a horrible existence and exalt human beings' brief time on earth as precious. You have read one of these examples when you practiced reading Mimnermos' poem on the brevity of life and importance of love. Plato's Sokrates remains uncommital, arguing in the *Apology* that since we do not know what death is or what it holds in store for us, we need to reject our fear of death and the unknown, living a life directed toward the good. Many Greeks sought refuge from life's brevity in the religious cults of Demeter and Dionysos, which promised initiates a blessed, heaven-like afterlife. A nuanced understanding of ancient Greek belief on religion and death would require more evidence than we currently possess.

# **Etymology Corner XXV by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 21, Parts of Speech

**Verbs, cont. Principal parts** are so named because they are main parts of a verb (**princeps** gives us **prince**, and ultimately derives from the guy who gets *to take* (**capere**) *first* (**prin**) at a sacrifice, i.e., the most important person; and Latin **pars** means *part*). So in Greek, once you have memorized the **six principal parts** of a verb you can make all **240** forms of that verb from those essential elements. Indeed, you can use each **principal part** to find the **stem**, which, like the stem of a tree or bush, is unchanging despite the growth and decay of the foliage at the end of its branches.

**What to Study and Do 25.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have learned how the infinitive functions in indirect statement, πρίν-clauses, and ὥστε-clauses. Finally, compare and contrast the dynamic infinitive as a complement and the declarative infinitive as a complement, remembering that both give **actions** or **states of being** which exist **potentially** or **ἐν δυνάμει**.

**Learning Tip 25: Creativity and Paradigm Shifts.** Creativity involves coming to see a situation in a substantially different way. It is a paradigm shift. The tree has not changed but how we see the tree has. A geocentric view of the universe differs completely from the heliocentric view whereby the planets revolve around a sun that is part of a solar system, which is part of a universe that forms part of a multi-verse. We live best when the creativity that we are born with expresses itself. The world ever changes with a dynamism that includes chaos and incoherence. We bring coherence to our ever-changing world through the various conceptual systems we create. Chaos, conflict, and incoherence beget dissonance, which allows for creative breakthroughs that bring with them unity and coherence. The cycle is endless.

# Guest Feature 4 **Amy R. Cohen on Performing and Translating Ancient Greek Drama**

Amy R. Cohen, Professor of Classics at Randolph-Macon Woman's College and Director of the Whiteside Greek Theatre, discusses ancient Greek Drama.

I have two great professional passions: ancient Greek language and Greek drama.

My love affair with Greek itself goes back to switching public school systems in the Shenandoah Valley so that I could take Latin because my wise parents understood how valuable the language might be to anything I wanted to do. I had a great high school Latin teacher (Kristin Vines), and I was good at Latin: I loved the puzzle of it and the way it made me think more clearly about English. When I got to college, I signed up for Greek as soon as I could, which turned out to be a double-credit intensive class taught by the great Richard Garner, and I fell in love with Greek. And it really did feel like a love affair—that I had broken up with Latin because I had found my true love in Greek. This was bad news for my Latin but has led to an incredibly fulfilling couple of decades as a Greek professor.

Greek is physically beautiful: it curves and swoops and catches with the kind of give that lets words land gently. A page of Greek text invites you in, even as it presents you with mysteries to solve.

Those mysteries are solved by looking closely at the smallest details of the language—an ending that tells you what a word wants to do, an accent that reveals a different definition—and if you trust those clues and what they tell you, the page opens up to you and brings you treasures. Directing ancient drama works the same way: pay attention to the smallest details of the script, and you reveal the riches in store for us from Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes.

My path into theatre ran parallel to my path into Greek: I'm the daughter of a Shakespeare professor who also spearheaded a study abroad program. Starting when I was still in elementary school, I got to see many, many plays, most of them in London, even though I was growing up in rural Virginia. After every show we went to, Shakespeare or not, we would talk about its successes and failures. Was the language obscure because a character was being deceptive? When was it simple? When was it flowery? Did the sets and costumes and lighting reveal more about the play to us? Were the actors disappearing into their roles? These discussions were even more wide-ranging when they were with a group of my father's students, which always included us no matter how late the evening had become.

I learned so much from those years of theatre: first, that talking about a play is necessary. Even before I realized that those conversations were my training as a director, they formed part of the communal involvement of seeing a play: our shared reactions and disagreements were as much a part of the experience as the time in our seats. I also started seeing what could have been better about a production. I have since learned, of course, that many things especially time and money—are out of the control of a director, but sometimes the best shows to talk about were the worst shows to attend. Bad plays often teach more clearly what a good play is because it can be easier to articulate the elements that contribute to "badness" than to define the aspects that make a show good.

For me, bad plays were those where the work of the playwright and the actors took a backseat to the "concept" of the director, particularly when that concept found expression mostly in the design elements of the show, the parts that Aristotle would call spectacle (ὄψις).1 It seemed to me that directors were often replacing the play's ideas with their own, either to solve a perceived audience problem ("Shakespeare is hard!") or because they saw a play merely as a blank canvas for their own artistic statements. I developed a taste for a restrained directing style and spare productions, in which the focus was on the words of the script and the interactions of the actors among themselves and with the audience.

<sup>1</sup> Of course, Aristotle thinks the power of tragedy doesn't require performance or actors, and he is wrong.

To return to the parallel paths: in the same year that I began taking Latin, my father co-directed his first production, having become convinced that it makes no sense to teach play texts without working on and thinking about them as plays, as texts for perfomance.2 Meanwhile, I was falling in love with the details of Latin morphology and hanging out backstage at the university theatre after school. Doing drama was extracurricular, though, during my college and graduate school years: Classics degrees did not include putting on plays. But my first "real" Greek was Euripides' *Medea*, and by the time I got to graduate school I knew that I would specialize in Greek drama. There I worked on how paying attention to which roles an actor plays can change how we understand the tragedies.

Then I had the great good fortune to be seeking a Greek professor job just when Randolph-Macon Woman's College needed someone. R-MWC had a Greek Play tradition that had started in 1909 with a professor named Mabel Kate Whiteside. Miss Mabel (as she was known) and her students put on forty plays in Greek over the course of forty-five years, culminating with the entire *Oresteia* in 1954. In 1999, the college's president thought that restarting that tradition in its Greek theatre would be a good idea, and the hiring committee thought that I was the person to do it.

Since then, the Whiteside Greek Theatre has been a laboratory and a studio as well as a drama venue: we put on plays (in English) the way we think the Greeks did in Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, including researching and constructing linen masks. We find out how that performance practice changes our understanding of the plays, all the while (we hope) moving and entertaining audiences who perhaps expect only a dusty museum experience when they attend. With every production, attention to the details of text and staging brings clarity to us in the company and thus to our audiences. Sometimes our work reveals new solutions for perceived problems in the plays, sometimes new aspects entirely emerge, and sometimes the work favors one interpretation over another.

For instance, in Euripides' *Iphigeneia at Aulis*, scholars and audiences have long been uncomfortable with the title character's seemingly sudden change of heart (from pleading for her life to volunteering to be sacrificed for the cause of the Greeks). One line our Iphigeneia was having difficulty with helped us explain her actions by leading

<sup>2</sup> He ended up co-founding the American Shakespeare Center.

us to conclude that Iphigeneia is a young girl doing her best to understand her father's desires and meet them. That decision, based on in-depth work on the line,3 changed the way we understood the play: Iphigeneia not only changes her mind, she grows up. She hasn't just made a rash decision; she has put away childish things. Finding that out by working on how to say one particular line contributed to serious work on Euripides, and it made our show better by making the character's actions make sense.

In Sophocles' *Elektra*, too, attention to the details of the meter shows that Elektra is singing but that Orestes is speaking for her whole song after he reveals his identity (ll. 1232–1288). Elektra's exuberant song is ruining the plan that Orestes and his Tutor have set up to avenge Agamemnon's death by killing Klytemnestra—and it's hilarious! Productions seldom allow Greek tragedy to be funny, but our Elektra danced and sang around the whole stage while Orestes chased and shooshed her. Allowing the details of the meter and the words (σιγᾶν ἄμεινον, μή τις ἔνδοθεν κλύῃ!) along with the performance choices that flowed naturally from them revealed an almost slapstick moment in Sophocles, which then complicated our reactions to the rest of the play.

In both of these examples, details of the text and an openness to what the human interactions on stage were telling us led to productions rich with implications lost to those who come to rehearsals with a fixed idea of what the play is and must be. My advice as a professor of Greek and a director of Greek drama: approach the world with a delighted attention to detail and the world will delight you with riches.

To watch a video of Amy R. Cohen discussing her approach to directing ancient Greek plays in English, follow this link:

Amy R. Cohen, Details Matter. 4

<sup>3</sup> Line 674: ἀλλὰ ξὺν ἱεροῖς χρὴ τό γ᾽ εὐσεβὲς σκοπεῖν. The translation had "Sacrifices are to find out how we may please the gods," and once our actor found that she could say it as a lesson learned to please her father Agamemnon, it made much more sense in the context and for the character. (W. S. Merwin and George E. Dimock, Jr., 1992. *Iphigeneia at Aulis* (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press) p. 53.)

<sup>4</sup> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6EtYy0LVBOo.

# Module 26 **Additional Common Adjectives:** πᾶς**,**  μέγας**,** πολύς**,** ἡδύς**,** ἀληθής**, and -**ᾱς**, -**ᾱσα**, -**αν

# **Adjectives**

Remember that Greek and English adjectives have the same function, though the Greek adjective has endings and the English adjective does not. Adjectives in both languages are words that describe nouns. In the phrase **the happy and sad blues, the, happy,** and **sad** describe the noun **blues**. The Greek adjective has endings because the endings enable it to agree in gender, case, and number with the noun it modifies.

# **Additional Common Adjectives**

Review the below paradigms carefully and note that you have already memorized the majority of the endings. Remember that the letter nu in parentheses is a nu-movable. It may be added to the ending when the following word begins with a vowel or at the end of clauses or verses. Otherwise, it is left off.





#### **μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα** *big, great*


#### **πολύς, πολλή, πολύ** *much, many*

1. **πολύ** is often found in the accusative as an accusative of respect. It translates well into English as the adverb **very.**

#### **ἡδύς, ἡδεῖα, ἡδύ** *sweet*



### **ἀληθής, ἀληθές** *true*

#### **Singular**

**Plural**





### **Plural**


# **Mixed Declension Adjectives**

As is the case with **-ων, -ουσα, -ον** (Module 20), the masculine and neuter genders decline like nouns of sets 9 and 10. The feminine declines like short-alpha nouns of set 3.


1. After removing the past indicative augment, add these endings to the third principal parts of first aorist ω-verbs.


**Practice Translating Additional Adjectives.** Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.


#### **Vocabulary**



1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

### **Homer**

Homer, **Ὅμηρος**, lived about 750 BCE. He is conventionally credited with the composition of the epic poems, the *Iliad* and the *Odyssey*. The *Iliad* centers on the character of Akhilleus and the Trojan War, both dating to about 1100 BCE. The *Odyssey* concerns Odysseus and his attempt to return home at the end of the ten-year Trojan War. In the poems Homer speaks of his own modern day (c. 750 BCE) and refers to it regularly. When telling the stories of Akhilleus and Odysseus, he refers to these events as existing in ancient times. Of the many accounts of Homer's life, the most common is that he was a blind bard from Ionia—blindness being associated with excellence in the poetic craft.

**The Homeric Question** asks who authored the epics. One view holds that Homer did and exalts him and the genius of his work. At the other extreme, scholars question Homer's existence, do not believe that one person authored both epics, and believe the poems are the result of layers of different poems combined through the years into a single faulty and incomplete whole. Some scholars, who conclude that Homer authored both epics, accept the argument that the epics are the result of layering but argue that they form a beautifully complete whole. In his own day and for many centuries later, scholars and lay people considered Homer's poetic ability so good that many poets shied away from writing epic poetry.

This textbook offers a small selection from the *Odyssey* where Penelope and her husband in disguise, Odysseus, interrogate each other, verbally sparring as the reader wonders if Penelope has seen through her husband's disguise and who is testing whom.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Homer's *Odyssey* **(Ὀδύσσεια).** Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII and the **Case and Function Chart**  in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

**Πηνελόπεια:** ἀλλὰ δεῖ σοι τὸν ὄνειρον ὑποκρίνασθαι καὶ ἀκοῦσαι. χῆνές μοι κατὰ οἶκον εἴκοσι πυρὸν ἔδουσιν ἐξ ὕδατος, καί τούτοις ἰαίνομαι εἰσορόουσα. ἦλθε δ' ἐξ ὄρεος μέγας αἰετὸς ἀγκυλοχείλης καὶ πᾶσι αὐχένας κατἦξε καὶ ἔκτανεν. οἱ μὲν χέονται ἀθρόοι ἐν μεγάροις· ὁ δ' ἐς αἰθέρα δῖαν ἀέρθη. αὐτὰρ ἐγὼ ἔκλαιον καὶ ἐκώκυον ἔν περ ὀνείρῳ. ἀμφὶ δ' ἔμ' ἠγερέθοντο εὐπλοκαμῖδες Ἀχαιαί, οἴκτρα τε ὀλοφύρομαι ὅτι μοι αἰετὸς ἔκτανε χῆνας. ὁ δ' ἂψ ἐλθὼν ἄρ' ἕζεται ἐπὶ μελάθρῳ· φωνῇ δὲ βροτείᾳ κατερητύει φώνησέν τε·

**αἰετός:** δεῖ σοὶ θαρσέειν, Ἰκαρίου κούρη τηλεκλειτοῦ· οὐκ ὄναρ, ἀλλ' ὕπαρ ἐσθλόν, ὅ τοι τετελεσμένον ἔσται. χῆνες μὲν μνηστῆρες· ἐγὼ δέ τοι αἰετὸς ὄρνις ἦν πάρος, νῦν αὖτε τεὸς πόσις ἥκω, ὃς πᾶσι μνηστήρεσσιν ἀεικέα πότμον ἐφήσω.

**Πηνελόπεια:** αὐτὰρ ἐμὲ μελιηδὴς ὕπνος ἀνῆκε. ἐγὼ δὲ χῆνας ἐν μεγάροις ἐπάπτηνα καὶ νόησα. οἱ δὲ πυρὸν ἐρέπτονται παρὰ πύελον, ἧχι πάρος περ.

**Ὀδυσσεύς ξεῖνος:** οὔ πως ἔστιν ὑποκρίνασθαι ὄνειρον ἄλλῃ, ἐπεὶ ἦ ῥὰ αὐτὸς Ὀδυσσεὺς εἶπε ὅπως τελέει. μνηστήρεσσιν δὲ φαίνεται ὄλεθρος πᾶσι μάλ', οὐδέ τις θάνατον καὶ κῆρας ἀλύξει.

**Πηνελόπεια:** ξεῖν', ἦ τοι μὲν ὄνειροι ἀμήχανοι ἀκριτόμυθοι γίγνοντ', οὐδέ τι πάντα τελέεται ἀνθρώποις.

### **Adverbs and Verbs**




1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give their case and function. For verbs, give their person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

τί νομίζεις τὴν δημοκρατίαν πoλλῷ ἡδίονα τυραννίδος;

ὁ δ' ἂψ ἐλθὼν ἄρ' ἕζεται ἐπὶ μελάθρῳ· φωνῇ δὲ βροτείᾳ κατερητύει φώνησέν τε·

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

**Module 26 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Adjectives and Nouns**

**δίκαιος, δικαίᾱ, δίκαιον** *just* **ὀλίγος, ὀλίγη, ὀλίγον** *few, little, small* **πάθος, πάθεος (πάθους) τό** *suffering; experience; passion; emotion* **πλεῖστος, πλείστη, πλεῖστον** *most, greatest, largest* **φύσις, φύσιος (φύσηος, φύσεως) ἡ** *nature* 

### **Verbs**

**δέω, δεήσω, ἐδέησα, δεδέηκα, δεδέημαι, ἐδεήθην** *want, lack, miss, stand in need of, want* + gen*.; long* or *wish for* + gen.; *ask for* 'x' in gen. or acc. *from* 'y' in gen., **τοῦτο (**or **τούτου) ὑμῶν δέομαι** *I ask you for this*

**ἵστημι, στήσω, ἔστησα** (trans.) or **ἔστην** (intrans.), **ἕστηκα** (intrans.), **ἕσταμαι, ἐστάθην** *stand, make stand, place*

**καθίστημι** (trans.) *appoint, establish, put into a state*; (intrans.) *be established, be appointed, enter into a state*

**κεῖμαι, κείσομαι, ------, ------, ------, ------** *lie* 

1. **κεῖμαι** conjugates like so,


### **Infinitive:** κεῖσθαι

# **Etymology Corner XXVI by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 22, Parts of Speech

**Verbs cont.** We touched on the difference between **tense** and **aspect** above. This is an important distinction, and one that frequently causes difficulty because of how English handles tenses. Here is yet another situation where Greek is perfectly clear but English is not. Two of the signs to help you distinguish the tenses are **reduplication** and **augments.** 


Luckily, the etymologies for the various tenses can also help you out in distinguishing and translating them.


**tense** is the tense that talks about actions *more thoroughly completed*.

• The most common past tense is the **aorist**. As you will discover the more Greek you read, the **aorist** is a flexible tense, which reflects its origin **ἀόριστος**, *not limited* (**ἀ-**, *without*, like in asymptomatic meaning *without showing symptoms* + **ὁρίζειν**, *to limit*, where we get **horizon** meaning the limit of where we can see on the earth). It can mean a simple completed action like **he ate the snow** but also in general sayings of wisdom like **don't eat yellow snow**.

**What to Study and Do 26.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you refresh your memory on noun and adjective agreement and how adjectives can function as substantives. Also memorize the five additional common adjectives and pronouns presented in this module. From this point on their forms will not be glossed.

**Learning Tip 26: Cultivating Creativity.** It is not certain how we come to see things in fundamentally new ways. Deep learning and thinking remain mysterious. Achieving them involves a letting go of control. You cannot will creativity to produce what you seek. You can encourage it to occur. Meditation, novelty, and travel are supposed to help. At some point in the letting go, you move from viewing the situation from the normal point of view to a resolution to the problem that is fundamentally different and at the same time obvious and inevitable. The meaning of **τῶν καλῶν** in a sentence may make little sense to you at first, but as you work with it the meaning becomes as fundamentally obvious as 1 + 1 = 10 is to the mathematician. Awareness, open mindedness, contemplating conflict, tension, and incoherence require our sustained effort. Through sustained effort the difficult is rendered easy and familiar.

# Module 27 **Comparative and Superlative Adjectives and Adverbs; Dative of Degree of Difference**

# **Adjectives**

Remember that Greek and English adjectives have the same function, though the Greek adjective has endings and the English adjective does not. Adjectives in both languages are words that describe nouns. In the phrase **the happy and sad blues, the**, **happy,** and **sad** describe the noun **blues**. The Greek adjective has endings because the endings enable it to agree in gender, case, and number with the noun it modifies.

# **Adjectives and Degree**

English and Greek adjectives have three degrees: **positive, comparative,** and **superlative**. English creates the three degrees of the adjective through suffixes or with the adverbs **more** and **most**:


Greek does the same.

# **Adjectives of the Comparative and Superlative Degree**

Adjectives show degrees by using one of two sets of suffixes or by using the adverb **μᾶλλον** *more* for the comparative degree and the adverb **μάλιστα** *most* for the superlative degree.

The comparative degree suffixes **-τερος, -τέρᾱ, -τερον** decline like first and second declension adjectives.

The superlative degree suffixes **-τατος, -τάτη, -τατον** decline like first and second declension adjectives.

The comparative degree suffixes **-ιων, -ιον** decline like third declension nouns with some alternate forms.

The superlative degree suffixes **-ιστος, -ίστη, -ιστον** decline like first and second declension adjectives.

An additional way to form the comparative and superlative is to use the adverbs **μᾶλλον** or **μάλιστα**, along with the positive degree of the adjective.


### **Declining Comparative and Superlative Adjectives**

To form the comparative and superlative degrees of 1st and 2nd declension adjectives, obtain the stem by dropping **-ος** from the masculine nominative singular.

If the stem ends in a **long syllable** (a long vowel or diphthong or a short vowel followed by two consonants or by the double consonants **-ζ, -ξ,** or **-ψ**), add to it **-ότερος, -οτέρᾱ, -ότερον** for the comparative and **-ότατος, -οτάτη, -ότατον** for the superlative.

If the stem ends in a **short syllable**, add to it **-ώτερος, -ωτέρᾱ, -ώτερον** for the comparative, and **-ώτατος, -ωτάτη, -ώτατον** for the superlative.

Consider the following examples.

### Comparative degree


### Superlative degree


# **Declining Comparative and Superlative Adjectives in**  -ης, -ες **and in** -ύς, -εῖα, -ύ

To form the comparative and superlative degrees of 3rd declension adjectives ending in **-ης, -ες** and of adjectives ending in **-ύς, -εῖα, -ύ,** add the suffixes directly to the stem without any intervening vowel. The stem of these adjectives is taken from the neuter singular nominative.

### Comparative degree


### Superlative degree


# **Declining Comparative and Superlative Adjectives**  -ίων, -ιον **and** -ιστος, -ίστη, -ιστον

Adjectives that take **-ίων, -ιον** in the comparative degree take **-ιστος, -ίστη, -ιστον** in the superlative degree. The comparative degree declines like a third declension noun with a few alternate forms. The superlative degree declines like 1st and 2nd declension adjectives.

### Comparative degree


### Superlative degree


### **Adverbs**

Unlike nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, adverbs do not have gender, number, or case. Adverbs modify adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs. Like adjectives, adverbs have three degrees: **positive, comparative,** and **superlative**.

For the positive degree English typically adds the suffix **-ly**. English uses the suffixes **-er** and **-est** or **more** and **most** to create the comparative and superlative degrees of the adverb:


Greek creates the three degrees by adding a suffix.

## **Adverbs of the Positive Degree**

Most adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding **-ως** to the stem, found by dropping the ending from the masculine genitive singular of the adjective.


1. Adverbs in **-ως** accented on the ultima always have a circumflex: **κακῶς**.

### **Adverbs of the Comparative Degree**

Adverbs formed from adjectives use as their comparative degree the neuter accusative singular of the comparative degree of the adjective.


## **Adverbs of the Superlative Degree**

Adverbs formed from adjectives use as their superlative degree the neuter accusative plural of the superlative degree of the adjective.


# **Comparison with** ἤ **and the Genitive Case**

When you compare two things as in these sentences,

laughter is stronger than tears,

and

the whole is greater than the part,

using the comparative degree, you may do so by using the word **ἤ** *than* or by using the genitive case without **ἤ**, called a **genitive of comparison**.

Consider these examples. The underline marks the second item in the comparison.


Note that when you use **ἤ**, the two things being compared are always in the same case.

### **Dative of Degree of Difference**

If you want to state the degree by which one thing is **more** than another, use the dative case. In this sentence,

**πoλλῷ** ἥδε σoφωτέρα τῆς μητρός ἐστι, *she is much wiser than her mother,*

the **πoλλῷ** *by much* is the dative of degree of difference.

# **Adjectives and Adverbs in Summary**

Τhe chart below contains all the information found above, and information on adjectives from other modules, but in a condensed form. Look it over, making sure that you understand how to read it.



**Practice Translating Comparative and Superlative Adjectives.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from a variety of ancient Greek authors. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

**Satyros of Kallatis, Σάτυρος Κάλλατις c. 150 BCE.** Satyros was a philosopher, historian, and biographer whose subjects included kings, philosophers, poets, orators, and statesmen. Fragments of his biography on Euripides were found on a papyrus scroll at Oxyrhynchus, Egypt in the early 1900s.


### **Vocabulary**


**\*ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ** *man, husband* **\*μικρός, μικρά, μικρόν** *small*

\***ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ** *human, person*

\***ἄξιος, ἀξίᾱ, ἄξιον** *worthy, deserving* + gen.

**\*ἀρετή, ἀρετῆς ἡ** *virtue; excellence* **ὀργή, ὀργῆς ἡ** *mood; anger, wrath*

**\*γυνή, γυναικός ἡ** *woman, wife* **ὀφθαλμός, ὀφθαλμοῦ ὁ** *eye*

**δημαγωγός, δημαγωγοῦ ὁ** *demagogue*

**δημοκρατία, δημοκρατίας ἡ** *democracy*

**ἐγείρω, ἐγερέω, ἤγειρα** *awaken, rouse*

**εὐλογώτερος, εὐλογώτερον** *more reasonable*

**Εὐριπίδης, Εὐριπίδου ὁ** *Euripides***,**  tragic playwright from Athens, c. 450 BCE

*\****ἔχω, ἕξω** or **σχήσω, ἔσχον** *have, hold; be able* + inf.; **καλῶς ἔχειν** *to be well*

**νεώτερος, νεωτέρα, νεώτερον** *newer*

\***νομίζω, νομιέω, ἐνόμισα** *believe, think, have the custom of, hold as custom*

**γέρων, γέροντος ὁ** *old man* **\*ὁράω, ὄψομαι, εἶδον (ἰδεῖν)** *see*

**παίζω** *play, sport, dance*

\***παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ** *child*

**\*δῆμος, δήμου ὁ** *people* **\*πατήρ, πατρός ὁ** *father*

**δήπου** *surely* **\*πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα** *persuade* + inf.; (mid. or pass.) *listen to, obey* + dat. or gen.

**διαβολή διαβολῆς ἡ** *slander* \***πλεῖστος, πλείστη, πλεῖστον** *most, greatest, largest*

**πλοῦτος, πλούτου ὁ** *wealth*

**ἕλκος, ἕλκεος (-ους) τό** *wound* **\*ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα** *do, make, cause;* (mid.) *consider*

> \***πόλις, πόλιος (πόληος, πόλεως) ἡ** *city*

**πρόσωπον, προσώπου τό** *face*

**\*εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον** *find* **ῥήτωρ, ῥήτορος ὁ** *rhetor, speaker*

**\*ἔφη** *he, she, it said* **\*σκοπέω, σκοπήσω, ἐσκόπησα,** *look at; examine; consider*

**\*σός, σή, σόν** *your*


1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Homer's *Odyssey* **(Ὀδύσσεια).** Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII and the **Case and Function Chart**  in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

**Πηνελόπεια:** δοιαὶ γάρ τε πύλαι ἀμενηνῶν εἰσὶν ὀνείρων· αἱ μὲν γὰρ κεράεσι τεύχονται, αἱ δ' ἐλέφαντι. αὐτῶν οἱ μὲν ἔρχονται διὰ πριστοῦ ἐλέφαντος. οὗτοι ῥ' ἐλεφαίρονται καὶ ἔπε' ἀκράαντα φέρουσιν. οἱ δὲ διὰ ξεστῶν κεράων ἔρχονται θύραζε. οὗτοι ῥ' ἔτυμα κραίνουσι, βροτῶν εἴ τις ὁράει. ἀλλ' ἐμοὶ οὐκ ἐντεῦθεν οἴομαι αἰνὸν ὄνειρον ἐλθεῖν. εἰ οὕτως, ἦ ἀσπαστὸν ἐμοὶ καὶ παιδὶ γενήσεται. ἄλλο δέ σοι ἐρέω· ἥδε δὲ ἠὼς ἐλεύσεται δυσώνυμος, ἣ μ' Ὀδυσσέως οἴκου ἀποσχήσει. νῦν γὰρ καταθήσω ἄεθλον, τοὺς πελέκεας, οὓς κεῖνος ἐν μεγάροις ἵστησιν ἑξείης, δρυόχους ὥς, δώδεκα πάντας. ἵστησιν δ' ὅ γε πολὺ ἄνευθε καὶ διαρριπτάσκει οἰστόν. νῦν δὲ μνηστήρεσιν ἄεθλον τοῦτον ἐφήσω· ὃς δὲ ῥηΐτατ' ἐντανύει βιὸν ἐν παλάμαις καὶ διοϊστεύει πελέκεων δυοκαίδεκα πάντων, τούτῳ αὐτὴ ἅμ' ἕψομαι. καὶ νοφίσομαι τόδε δῶμα κουρίδιον, μάλα καλόν, ἐνίπλειον βιότου, οὗ ποτὲ μνήσεσθαι οἴομαι ἔν περ ὀνείρῳ.

**Ὀδυσσεύς ξεῖνος:** ὦ γύναι αἰδοίη Λαερτιάδου Ὀδυσσέως, δεῖ μηκέτι νῦν ἀναβάλλειν δόμοις ἔνι τοῦτον ἄεθλον. πρὶν γὰρ πολύμητις ἐλεύσεται ἐνθάδ' Ὀδυσσεύς, πρὶν τούτους τόδε τόξον ἐΰξοον ἀμφαφάειν τε νευρήν τ' ἐντανύσαι διοϊστεῦσαί τε σιδήρου.

**Πηνελόπεια:** εἰ ἐθέλεις παρά μοι, ξεῖνε, ἧσθαι ἐν μεγάροις καὶ τέρπειν, οὐκ οἴομαί μοι ὕπνον ἐπὶ βλεφάροις χυθήσεσθαι.

### **Adverbs and Verbs**



**ἀμενηνός, ἀμενηνόν** *powerless, fleeting, feeble*

**ἀσπαστός, ἀσπαστή, ἀσπαστόν** *welcome*

**βλέφαρα, βλεφάρων τά** *eyelids, eyes* **ξεῖνος (ξένος), ξείνου (ξένου) ὁ**

**δρύοχοι, δρυόχων οἱ** *props, stays, shores* (on which the frame of a ship is propped)

**δυσώνυμος, δυσώνυμον** *bearing an ill name, ill-omened*

**ἐλέφας, ἐλέφαντος ὁ** *elephant; elephant's tusk; ivory*

**ἐνίπλειος, ἐνίπλειον** *full of* + gen. **πύλη, πύλης ἡ** *gate*

**ἔπος, ἔπεος (ἔπους) τό** *word, speech; song; saying; verse*

**ἔτυμος, ἔτυμον** *true, real, actual* **τόξον, τόξου τό** *bow*

**\*ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο** *another, other* **κουρίδιος, κουριδία, κουρίδιον** *wedded, nuptial, bridal*

> **Λαερτιάδης, Λαερτιάδου ὁ** *son of Laertes*

**μέγαρον, μεγάρου τό** *megaron, great hall*

**βιός, βιοῦ ὁ** *bow* **μνηστήρ, μνηστῆρος ὁ** (epic dat. pl. **μνηστήρεσσιν**) *suitor*

**βίοτος, βιότου ὁ** *life* **νευρή, νευρῆς ἡ** *sinew, bow-string; cord*

*stranger; guest-friend*

**βροτός, βροτοῦ ὁ** *mortal* **ξεστός, ξεστή, ξεστόν** *smooth, polished, wrought*

**\*γυνή, γυναικός ἡ** *woman, wife* **Ὀδυσσεύς, Ὀδυσσέως ὁ** *Odysseus*

**δοιός, δοιά, δοιόν** *two* **οἶκος, οἴκου ὁ** *house, palace*

**δόμος, δόμου ὁ** *house* **οἰστός, οἰστοῦ ὁ** *arrow*

**ὄνειρος, ὀνείρου ὁ** *dream*

**δυοκαίδεκα** *twelve* **\*παῖς**, **παιδός ἡ ὁ** *child* **παλάμη, παλάμης ἡ** *palm, hand*

**δώδεκα** *twelve* **πέλεκυς, πελέκεως ὁ** *axe*

**δῶμα, δώματος τό** *house* **πολύμητις, πολυμήτιος** *of many counsels*

**πριστός, πριστή, πριστόν** *sawn*

**σίδηρος, σιδήρου ὁ** *iron*

**ἐΰξοος, ἐΰξοον** *polished* **ὕπνος, ὕπνου ὁ** *sleep*

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give their case and function. For verbs, their give person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

οὖν τι βούλῃ περὶ τῶν ἐκεῖ φράζειν ἐμοί ἢ ἄπειμι;

εἴ ἐθέλεις παρά μοι, ξεῖνε, ἧσθαι ἐν μεγάροις καὶ τέρπειν, οὐκ οἴομαί μοι ὕπνον ἐπὶ βλεφάροις χυθήσεσθαι.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

### **Boustrophedon**

Boustrophedon is a way of writing that starts in the way that we are used to but upon reaching the end of the line the writing turns back on itself with the letters facing in the new direction, much as a farmer, plowing a field, turns his cow at row's end.

Fig. 2 Schematic of reverse boustrophedon text, in the fashion of rongorongo, but using the Latin alphabet. Created by Kwamikagami, 2008, Wikimedia, public domain, https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Reverse\_boustrophedon.png

Fig. 3 Fragmentary boustrophedon inscription in the agora of Gortyn (Crete)—code of law. Photograph by PRA, 2009, Wikimedia, CC BY, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crete\_-\_ law\_of\_Gortyn\_-\_boustrophedon.JPG

In cultures where books are expensive and difficult to acquire, one book serves many readers and people learn how to read words from many different angles, including upside down. For them, reading upside down is as rightside up as reading rightside up is to us. As you consider the many ways that people differ from each other, also consider how culture determines much of what we assume, believe, desire, think about, and value. These differences represent the vast range of human potential and possibility.

**Module 27 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Adjectives**

**λοιπός, λοιπή, λοιπόν** *left, remaining* **μέσος, μέση, μέσον** *middle, middle of* + gen. **μικρός, μικρά, μικρόν** *small, little, short* **Verbs εἶμι** *come, go*

**ἔρομαι (εἴρομαι), ἐρήσομαι (εἰρήσομαι), ἠρόμην, -----, -----, -----** *ask, ask* 'x' in acc. *about* 'y' in acc.

**εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον, ηὕρηκα, ηὕρημαι, ηὑρέθην** *find out, discover*

**ἥκω, ἥξω, ------, ------, ------, ------** *have come, be present*

**πάρειμι** *go in, enter; pass by*

## **Etymology Corner XXVII by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 23, Parts of Speech

**Verbs, cont.** As we learned in Module 17, infinitives can be **dynamic,** or *potential* in their meaning, which is a good translation of the Greek **ἐν δυνάμει.** Think of the English **dynamic** meaning *powerful* or *having capacity/potential to act*, or a **dynamo**, a type of generator for electricity (i.e. *power*). Some infinitives we see in Module 24 are **declarative**, in that they *make clear* (from Latin **clarare**, which gives us the English **clarify**) what is introduced by the verb of saying, thinking or perceiving. **Declarative infinitives** are used in some types of **indirect statement**, that is, statements (utterances that *stand firmly*, Latin **stare**) that come *not from a straight path* (**in***, not¸* **dis**, *apart from,* **regere,** *to keep in a straight line*, which gives us **regular**, **rule**, and **ruler**). A **direct statement** is a quotation, a *straight-forward repeating* of an utterance. An **indirect statement** requires someone to report what someone said, adding one layer of complexity, which makes it *not a straight* quotation. What someone said is *made clear* with their **declarative infinitive.**

**What to Study and Do 27.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you refresh your memory on noun and adjective agreement and how adjectives can function as substantives. Memorize the definition of the positive, comparative, and superlative adjectives and adverbs. Memorize the function of the genitive of comparison and the dative of degree of difference. Finally make sure that you understand how to read the chart on adjectives and adverbs.

**Learning Tip 27: Learn to Engage in Debate and Disagreement.** When considering life's essential problems that admit of no one right solution, seek to understand before being understood. Understand the arguments of the other so well that you can reproduce them to the other's satisfaction. Help others clarify their arguments so that they are not misunderstood. Debate so as to bring out the best in others and let others bring out the best in you. Learn how to disagree without being disagreeable. Debate and disagreement help us to learn deeply and well.

# Module 28 εἰμί **and** εἶμι

# **The Verb**

In Greek and in English verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs are words that represent actions (**throw**) and states of being (**be** or **exist**). They differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English does not. The Greek verb **(ῥῆμα)** in its finite form has an **ending** that indicates what **person** and **number** the **subject** is. The Greek infinitive has an ending that indicates that it is unmarked for **person** and **number**.

# **The Verbs** εἰμί **and** εἶμι

The verbs **εἰμί** and **εἶμι** are **μι-verbs**, occur frequently, and are irregular in all languages. Memorize the forms below. As you memorize them, note the similarities and differences between them.

# **Present Indicative Active of** εἰμί


# **Imperfect Indicative Active of** εἰμί



# **Present Infinitive Active of** εἰμί

εἶναι *to be* unmarked

# **Present Indicative Active of** εἶμι


# **Imperfect Indicative Active of** εἶμι


# **Present Infinitive Active of** εἶμι


# **Present Participles of** εἰμί **and** εἶμι

### **ὤν, οὖσα, ὄν** *being*



### **ἰών, ἰοῦσα, ἰόν** *coming, going*



**Practice Translating εἰμί and εἶμι.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from a variety of ancient Greek writers. Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.


### **Vocabulary**



1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the below, adapted from Lucian's *The Lover of Lies* (**Φιλοψευδής**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII and the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

**Εὐκράτης:** ἐπεὶ γὰρ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ διῆγον ἔτι νέος ὤν—ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς ἐπὶ παιδείας προφάσει ἀπεστελλόμην—τὸν Νεῖλον εἰς Κοπτὸν ἀναπλεύσας, ἐκεῖθεν ἐπὶ τὸν Μέμνονα ἦλθον. ἐπεθύμησα ἀκοῦσαι τὸ θαυμαστὸν αὐτοῦ ἐκεῖνο ἠχέον πρὸς ἀνέχοντα τὸν ἥλιον. ἐκείνου μὲν οὖν ἤκουσα οὐ κατὰ ἄσημον φωνήν, τὸ κοινὸν τοῖς πολλοῖς. ἀλλά μοι καὶ ἔχρησεν ὁ Μέμνων αὐτὸς ἀνοίξας γε τὸ στόμα ἐν ἔπεσιν ἑπτά. καὶ δύναμαι, εἴ γε βούλομαι, ἐκβολὴν τοῦ λόγου ποιεῖσθαι καὶ εἰπεῖν αὐτὰ ὑμῖν τὰ ἔπη. ἀλλὰ οὐκ ἐθέλω. κατὰ δὲ τὸν ἀνάπλουν ἡμῖν συνέπλεε Μεμφίτης ἀνὴρ τῶν ἱερεῶν γραμματέων. ὁ δὲ θαυμάσιος τὴν σοφίαν καὶ τὴν παιδείαν, πᾶσαν εἰδὼς τὴν Αἰγύπτιον. ἐλέγετο δὲ τρία καὶ εἴκοσιν ἔτη ἐν τοῖς ἀδύτοις ὑπόγειος οἰκέειν, μαγεύειν παιδευόμενος ὑπὸ τῆς Ἴσιδος.

**Ἀρίγνωτος:** Παγκράτην λέγεις, ἐμὸν διδάσκαλον, ἄνδρα ἱερόν, ἐξυρημένον, ἐν ὀθονίοις, ἀεὶ νοήμονα, ἐπιμήκη, σιμόν, πρόχειλον, ὑπόλεπτον τὰ σκέλη ἀλλὰ ὁ δὲ οὐ καθαρῶς ἑλληνίζει.

**Εὐκράτης:** αὐτόν, ἐκεῖνον τὸν Παγκράτην. καὶ τοῦτον τὰ μὲν πρῶτα ἠγνόεον ἀλλὰ ἐπεὶ ὁρμίζομεν τὸ πλοῖον, ἑώραον αὐτὸν πολλὰ τεράστια ἐργαζόμενον· καὶ δὴ καὶ ἐπὶ κροκοδείλων ὀχέεται καὶ συννέει τοῖς θηρίοις. τὰ δὲ θηρία ὑποπτήσσει καὶ σαίνει ταῖς οὐραῖς. γιγνώσκω αὐτόν· ὁ δὲ γὰρ ἱερός τις ἄνθρωπος.

### **Adverbs and Verbs**


**ἀποστέλλω, ἀποστελέω, ἀπέστειλα** *send off, dispatch; putt off, doff; (intrans.) retire, withdraw* **οἰκέω, οἰκήσω, ᾤκησα** *inhabit, settle; manage, dwell, live* **\*βούλομαι, βουλήσομαι** *want, prefer; wish, be willing* **\*ὁράω (ἑώραον), ὄψομαι, εἶδον** *see* **\*γιγνώσκω, γνώσομαι, ἔγνων** know, recognize; decide + inf. **ὁρμίζω** *moor, anchor* **διάγω, -άξω, -ήγαγον** *carry over*; (intrans.) *cross over; pass;* (intrans.) *live* **ὀχέω** *uphold, endure; carry; drive, ride* **\*δύναμαι, δυνήσομαι** *be able, be strong enough* + inf. \***ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα** *do, make, cause;* (mid.) *consider* **\*ἐθέλω (θέλω), ἐθελήσω (θελήσω), ἠθέλησα** *wish, be willing* **σαίνω** *wag, fawn* **\*εἰπεῖν > λέγω συμπλέω** *sail with* **ἐκεῖθεν** *from that place, thence; on his part* **συννέω** *swim together, swim with* **ἑλληνίζω** *speak Greek* **ὑποπτήσσω** *crouch, cower* **ἐπιθυμέω** *set one's heart upon, be eager for, desire* + gen. **χράω, χρήσω, ἔχρησα** *proclaim, announce; furnish, lend* **\*ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον** *come, go* **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns ἄδυτος ἄδυτον** *not to be entered; never setting;* (subst.) *sanctuary, shrine* **καθαρῶς** *clearly, purely* **Αἰγύπτιος, Αἰγυπτία, Αἰγύπτιον** *Egyptian* **\*κοινός, κοινή, κοινόν** *shared, common* **Αἴγυπτος, Αἰγύπτου ἡ** *Egypt* **Κοπτός, Κοπτοῦ ἡ** *Koptos***,** a city on the Nile 43 kilometers north of Luxor **ἀναπλεύσας, ἀναπλεύσαντος ὁ** *sailing*  **κροκόδειλος, κροκοδείλου ὁ** *crocodile, lizard* **ἀνάπλοος (ἀνάπλους), ἀναπλόου (ἀναπλοῦ) ὁ** *sailing up* \***λόγος, λόγου ὁ** *word, speech, story; reason, account*

**ἀνέχων, ἀνέχοντος ὁ** *holding up*; *rising up*

**\*ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ** *man, husband* **Μεμφίτης, Μεμφίτου ὁ** *from* 

**\*ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ** *human, person*

**ἄσημος, ἄσημον** *without mark; unintelligible*

**γραμματεύς, γραμματέως ὁ** *secretary, clerk; recorder; scholar*

**διδάσκαλος, διδασκάλου ὁ** *teacher, master, trainer*

**ἐκβολή, ἐκβολῆς ἡ** *thowing out; expulsion; by-way; digression*

**ἐξυρημένος, ἐξυρημένη, ἐξυρημένον** *shaved*

**ἐπιμήκες, ἐπιμήκης** *long, oblong* **πρόχειλος, πρόχειλον** *with* 

**ἔπος, ἔπεος (-ους) τό** *word, speech; song; saying; verse*

**ἐργαζόμενος, ἐργαζομένου ὁ** *doing, accomplishing*

**Μέμνων, Μέμνονος ὁ** *Memnon*, one of two colossi of Memnon, depicting Pharaoh Amenhotep III and located west of Luxor

*Memphis*

**Νεῖλος, Νείλου ὁ** *Nile*

**ἀνοίξᾱς, ἀνοίξαντος ὁ** *opening* **\*νέος, νέᾱ, νέον** *new, fresh, young; strange, unexpected* 

**νοήμων, νοήμον** *thoughtful, sensible*

**βλέπω, βλέψομαι** *look at, see* **ὀθόνιον, ὀθονίου τό** *linen cloth, sail-cloth*

> **οὐρά, οὐρᾶς ἡ** *the hinder parts, after part; tail; κατ' οὐράν in rear, behind*

> **Παγκράτης, Παγκράτου ὁ** *Pankrates*

**εἰδώς, εἰδότος ὁ** *knowing* **παιδεία, παιδείας ἡ** *education, training, culture*

**εἴκοσιν** *twenty* **παιδευόμενος, παιδευομένου ὁ** *being taught*

**\*πατήρ, πατρός ὁ** *father*

**\*ἐμός, ἐμή, ἐμόν** *my* **πλοῖον, πλοίου τό** *ship*

**πρόφασις, προφάσεως (-ιος) ἡ** *pretext, excuse, cause, reason*

*prominent lips*

**\*πρῶτος, πρώτη, πρῶτον** *first, for the present, just now*

**ἑπτά** *seven* **σιμός, σιμή, σιμόν** *snub-nosed, flat-nosed*

**σκέλος, -ους (-εος) τό** *the leg*


1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give their case and function. For verbs, give their person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

ὁ πόλεμος καὶ δυστυχία τὰς ὀργὰς τῶν βροτῶν τὰς αὐτὰς ταῖς συντυχίαις καθιστᾶσιν.

τὸν Νεῖλον εἰς Κοπτὸν ἀναπλεύσας ἐκεῖθεν ἐπὶ τὸν Μέμνονα ἦλθον.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

**Diogenes the Cynic of Sinope (Διογένης ὁ Κυνικός, Σινώπη c. 412–323 BCE).** Diogenes was born in Sinope, an Ionian Greek colony on the shores of the Black Sea. The adjective **κυνικός** means *dog-like*. Greek philosophers tended to separate the world into nature (**φύσις**) and custom (**νόμος**). Customs vary from society to society. Α look to nature is done as a means for determining primordial absolutes which can serve as a guide to understanding humankind, the universe, and the proper way to live. This quest for the primordial continues today as we look to DNA and quantum physics to understand who we are and how to live. Diogenes looked at the dog. He saw humans in pursuit of the artificial in their quest for empire, glory, honor, status, and wealth. Rather he thought we should study the dog who defecates and fornicates openly and without shame. Dogs live in the moment and are able to detect friend from foe. When Alexander the Great approached Diogenes and asked him if there was a request he could fulfill for him, Diogenes asked if he could please move because he was blocking the sun's light and warmth from him. In his quest for the primordial Diogenes is one of a long list of thinkers who have pursued a life dedicated to the art of living well.

**Module 28 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Adjectives**

**ἐναντίος, ἐναντίᾱ, ἐναντίον** *opposite* + gen. or dat.

**ὀρθός, ὀρθή, ὀρθόν** *straight, correct, proper*

**τοσοῦτος, τοσαύτη, τοσοῦτο** *so much, so many*

**ὕστερος, ὑστέρᾱ, ὕστερον** *after, later*

### **Verbs**

**παρέχω (ἔχω, ἕξω** or **σχήσω, ἔσχον, ἔσχηκα, -ἔσχημαι, ------)** *furnish, hand over; supply; cause; allow, grant; be allowed*, **παρέχει** *it is allowed*

**σκοπέω, σκοπήσω, ἐσκόπησα, ------, ἐσκόπημαι or ἔσκεμμαι, ------** *look at; examine; consider, contemplate*

**συμβαίνω (βαίνω, βήσομαι, ἔβην, βέβηκα, βέβαμαι, ἐβάθην)** *stand with feet together; come together; come to an agreement, come to terms; meet* + dat.; (impers.) *come to pass, happen*

**τίθημι, θήσω, ἔθηκα, τέθηκα, τέθειμαι, ἐτέθην** *put, place; make, cause*

**ὑπάρχω (ἄρχω, ἄρξω, ἦρξα, ἦρχα, ἦργμαι, ἤρχθην)** *be; be sufficient; begin* + gen.; (impers.) *be allowed, be possible*

# **Etymology Corner XXVIII by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 24, Parts of Speech

**Adjectives, Modules 11, 12, 14, 18, 20, 26, 27.** The term **adjective** (**ὄνομα**) is well known, but Greek will help give you greater nuance in your understanding of them beyond knowing them as words that describe nouns and pronouns. Earlier we met **adverbs**, little words that go *towards the verb*. **Adjectives** go *towards* (**ad**) nouns and pronouns, but the motion is more violent. They are *thrown* (**iacere**) against their nouns!


**What to Study and Do 28.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have memorized the forms of **εἰμί** and **εἶμι** and that you understand how to translate and identify each form. From this point on their forms will not be glossed.

**Learning Tip 28: Deep Learning and Thinking.** Deep (creative) learning of a conceptual system is not easily forgotten. Our education system tends to teach information but not deep (creative) thinking. Teaching deep thinking is difficult. It involves a level of difficulty similar to that involved in producing a master work of art or a new scientific theory. Though difficult, orienting the way we teach and learn towards a deep thinking approach is a qualitatively superior method. As we learn the fundamentals of a subject (the old known information), we do so from the standpoint of learning how to produce new ways of knowing. As you master the information required to learn this ancient language, do so with an eye on developing a conceptual understanding of language. This conceptual awareness will assist you in developing a deep thinking approach to learning any subject.

# Module 29 δείκνυμι **and** φημί

# **The Verb**

In Greek and in English verbs have the same definitions and functions. Verbs are words that represent actions (**throw**) and states of being (**be** or **exist**). They differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English does not. The Greek verb **(ῥῆμα)** in its finite form has an **ending** that indicates what **person** and **number** the **subject** is. The Greek infinitive has an ending that indicates that it is unmarked for **person** and **number**.

# **The** μι-**Verbs** δείκνυμι **and** φημί

Though not as numerous as **ω-verbs**, **μι-verbs** occur frequently. **μι-verbs** conjugate differently from **ω-verbs** in some tenses, typically the present, imperfect, aorist, and sometimes the perfect. In conjugating these verb forms, learn which **stem** to combine with which ending. The **stem** is the base of the word to which the ending is joined. Once you have the correct stem and ending, combine them to create the correct form. You may memorize the stems and endings or you may learn how to combine stems and endings so that you can recognize the forms as you encounter them.

# **Present and Imperfect Tense Stems**

Use the long vowel grade stem for the singular (I, you, he, she, it) and the short vowel grade for the plural (we, you, they). Note that the stems differ even within the same tense, mood, and voice.


**φη- φα-**

# **Present and Imperfect Tense Endings**

Add to the correct tense stem.


### **Infinitive Active**


#### **Primary Middle and Passive**

(use for the present)


**Infinitive Middle and Passive** -σθαι

#### **Secondary Middle and Passive**

(use for the imperfect)


# **The Conjugation of** δείκνυμι

The principal parts are these:

δείκνῡμι δείξω ἔδειξα δέδειχα δέδειγμαι ἐδείχθην

Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stem with the correct endings.

### Present Indicative Active of δείκνῡμι

**Singular:** long vowel grade, **δεικνῡ-**, + primary active endings. **Plural:** short vowel grade, **δεικνυ-**, + primary active endings.


### Present Infinitive Active of δείκνῡμι


1. Note that infinitives with the ending **-ναι** are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus, its accent is persistent. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

### Present Indicative Middle of δείκνῡμι

Short vowel grade of the stem, **δεικνυ-**, + primary middle and passive endings.


### Present Infinitive Middle of δείκνῡμι

Short vowel grade of the stem, **δεικνυ-**, + -σθαι.

1. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

### Present Indicative Passive of δείκνῡμι

Short vowel grade of the stem, **δεικνυ-**, + primary middle and passive endings.


### Present Infinitive Passive of δείκνῡμι

Short vowel grade of the stem, **δεικνυ-**, + -σθαι.


1. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

### Imperfect Indicative Active of δείκνῡμι

**Singular:** long vowel grade, **δεικνῡ-**, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings. **Plural:** short vowel grade, **δεικνυ-**, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings.


### Imperfect Indicative Middle of δείκνῡμι

Short vowel grade stem, **δεικνυ-,** + past indicative augment and secondary middle and passive endings.


### Imperfect Indicative Passive of δείκνῡμι

Short vowel grade stem, **δεικνυ-,** + past indicative augment and secondary middle and passive endings.



# **The Conjugation of** φημί

The principal parts are these:

φημί φήσω ἔφησα ------ ------ ------

**φημί** does not have a middle or a passive voice. It has active forms in the present, imperfect, future, and aorist. It uses **μι-verb** endings for the present and imperfect and **ω-verb** endings for the future and first aorist.

Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stem with the correct endings.

### Present Indicative Active of φημί

**Singular:** long vowel grade, **φη-**, + primary active endings. **Plural:** short vowel grade, **φα-**, + primary active endings.


### Present Infinitive Active of φημί

Short vowel grade, **φα-**, + **-ναι**.


1. Note that infinitives with the ending **-ναι** are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus its accent is persistent. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

### Imperfect Indicative Active of φημί

**Singular:** long vowel grade, **φη-**, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings. **Plural:** short vowel grade, **φα-**, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings.


**Practice Translating μι-Verbs.** Translate the below sentences, adapted from a variety of ancient Greek writers. To come to an accurate understanding of the sentences, use your knowledge of endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or function, remember to use the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I and the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII to assist you. After you finish translating each sentence, check your understanding with the answer in the Answer Key. After you have read through all of the sentences once, read them again at least two more times. In each subsequent reading your understanding improves.


#### **Adverbs and Verbs**





1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Lucian's *The Lover of Lies* (**Φιλοψευδής**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII and the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

**Εὐκράτης:** κατὰ μικρὸν δὲ φιλοφρονούμενος οὐ πολὺ ἑταῖρος αὐτῷ καὶ συνήθης ἐγενόμην ὥστε πάντων ἐκοίνωσε μοι τῶν ἀπορρήτων. καὶ τέλος ἔπεισε με τοὺς μὲν οἰκέτας πάντας ἐν τῇ Μέμφιδι καταλιπεῖν, αὐτὸν δὲ μόνον ἀκολουθεῖν μετ' αὐτοῦ· μὴ γὰρ ἀπορήσειν ἡμᾶς ὅτι οἱ πολλοὶ ἡμῖν διακονήσονται. καὶ τὸ μετὰ τοῦτο οὕτω διήγομεν. ἐπεὶ ἤλθομεν εἴς τι καταγώγιον, ἔλαβεν ὁ ἀνὴρ ἢ τὸν μοχλὸν τῆς θύρας ἢ τὸ κόρηθρον ἢ καὶ τὸ ὕπερον καὶ τοῦτο περέβαλεν ἱματίοις. ἔπειτα ἐπιλέγει τινα ἐπῳδὴν καὶ τοῦτο ἐποίει βαδίζειν. δοκέει τοῖς ἄλλοις ἅπασιν ἄνθρωπος εἶναι. τὸ δὲ ἀπέρχεται ὕδωρ τε ἐμπίπλησι καὶ ἐσκεύαζε καὶ πάντα δεξιῶς ὑπηρέτεε καὶ διηκονέετο ἡμῖν. καὶ εἶτα ἐπεὶ ἅλις ἔχει τῆς διακονίας, ὁ δὲ Παγκράτης ἄλλην ἐπῳδὴν ἐπιλέγων αὖθις κόρηθρον τὸ κόρηθρον ἢ ὕπερον τὸ ὕπερον ἐποίεε. τοῦτο ἐγὼ πάνυ ἐσπούδαζον ἐκμανθάνειν παρ' αὐτοῦ ἀλλὰ οὐκ εἶχον. ἐβάσκαινε γάρ, καίτοι πρὸς τὰ ἄλλα προχειρότατος ὤν. μιᾷ δέ ποτε ἡμέρᾳ λαθών—ἐν σκοτεινῷ ὑφίστημι—ἐπήκουσα τῆς ἐπῳδῆς· ἦν δὲ τρισύλλαβος σχεδόν. καὶ ὁ μὲν ἐντέλλει τῷ ὑπέρῳ ταῦτα ἃ δεῖ ποιεῖν καὶ ᾤχετο εἰς τὴν ἀγοράν.

### **Adverbs and Verbs**



#### **Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns**



**λαθών, λαθόντος ὁ** *secretly, by stealth*

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give their case and function. For verbs, give their person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

ἓν δὲ βέλτιστον, ὃς κακὰ ἐμὲ ἐποίησε, τοῦτον δέννοις ἀντιδοῦναι κακοῖς.

ἔπειτα ἐπιλέγει τινα ἐπῳδὴν καὶ τοῦτο ἐποίεε βαδίζειν.

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

**Eukleides (Euclid) of Alexandria (Εὐκλείδης c. 300 BCE).** Born in Alexandria, Eukleides developed a conceptual system of geometry from a small set of axioms. His book, *Elements*, has been used to teach geometry up until 150 or so years ago. In *Elements*, Euclid discusses number theory, the connection between perfect numbers and Mersenne primes, the infinity of prime numbers, the uniqueness of prime factorization, and an algorithm for finding a common divisor of two numbers. Until recently Euclid's geometry was the only geometry possible. As of the 19th century, mathematicans have discovered other geometries collectively referred to as non-Euclidean. Euclid and the non-Euclidean geometrical systems that followed are examples of discontinuities that created ways of knowing that were novel.

#### **Herms and Phalloi**

Fig. 4 Herm of Hermes from Pergamon. Copy of a herm attributed to the sculptor Alkamenes. Photograph by Kharmacher, 2020, Wikimedia, CC BY-SA, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:20.12\_Herme\_Alkamenes.png

Fig. 5 A Roman gold phallic pendant, found in Essex. Photographed by Laura Pooley, Colchester Museums, 2006. The Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS) is a voluntary programme run by the United Kingdom government to record the increasing numbers of small finds of archaeological interest found by members of the public. The scheme started in 1997 and now covers most of England and Wales. Finds are published at https://finds.org.uk. Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA, https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A\_Roman\_gold\_phallic\_pendant\_(FindID\_144640-334389).jpg

Considered apotropaic (having the ability to ward off evil), the phallus appears on herms and as a pendant attached to chains and worn around the neck of children.

**Module 29 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Adjectives**

### **ἑκάτερος, ἑκατέρᾱ, ἑκάτερον** *each*

**κοινός, κοινή, κοινόν** *shared, common;* **ἐκ τοῦ κοινοῦ** *shared in common;* (n.) **τὸ κοινόν** *the state* 

**οἷος, οἵᾱ, οἷον** *such, such a kind*; **οἷός τέ εἰμι** *I am able, I am of such a kind to* + inf.; **οἷον** or **οἷα** *how, like, as, because*

**ὅλος, ὅλη, ὅλον** *whole, entire*

**Verbs**

**κρατέω, κρατήσω, ἐκράτησα, ------, ------, ἐκρατήθην** *be strong, powerful, rule + gen.*

**μανθάνω, μαθήσομαι, ἔμαθον, μεμάθηκα, ------, ------** *learn; learn to, learn how to* + inf.; *understand* 

**ὁμολογέω, ὁμολογήσω, ὡμολόγησα, ὡμολόγηκα, ὡμολόγημαι, ὡμολογήθην** *speak together; agree; admit*

# **Etymology Corner XXIX by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 25, Parts of Speech

**Adjectives, cont.** In Module 27, we meet the three **degrees of adjectives** and **adverbs**. We've already met the root of **degree** in **progressive** and **grade**, **gradior/ gress-** means *step*. There are three *steps* we have with our adjectives.

	- **– The degree of difference is the size of the** *step/distance between*  **two items (dis-/dif-, away from, like in distract (to** *drag* **someone's attention** *away* **from something) and ferre which we've already met as** *carry***).**

people **most likely to succeed,** or with the **best smile**, or the **cutest couple**. In my yearbook I was "most likely to write an etymology corner for a Greek textbook". (At least that's what it says now that I've spent a little time with a label printer.) These people have been *carried above* all the rest. **Super**, like where Superman flies, means above, and **latus** is the past participle of **ferre** which we met in **Comparatives**. An adjective or adverb in the **superlative degree** is the ultimate degree, the highest, best, sweetest, or most honorable, the one that is beyond all the rest.

• Adjectives can be in **attributive** and **predicate position**, one of the ways paying close attention to word order is vital for correctly discerning meaning. When something is in **attributive position** it is an attribute, that is, a quality or characteristic. This comes from the Latin **ad + tribuere**, *to grant or gift to someone,* easily seen in the English **tribute**, a gift given out of respect or esteem. Words in the **attributive position** are *granted* to the noun they modify like gifts. Words in the **predicate position**, on the other hand, are talking about their noun. We met the etymons **prae***, before,* and **dicare**, *to assert* or *talk about* earlier in the textbook. The distinction seems small, but the precision of Greek allows it to say much with these subtle distinctions.

**What to Study and Do 29.** Before moving on to the next module, make sure that you have memorized the endings for **μι-verbs** and that you understand how to translate and identify each form.

**Learning Tip 29: Creation and Destruction.** Albert Low argues that the need to create is a fundamental life force of the universe. Ordinary people with ordinary jobs have just as much a need to create as does the expert musician, painter, poet, or scientist. We cannot repress our drive to create. It must be expressed constructively through allowing our imagination to realize its potential. Low argues that if our need to create is repressed, it will be expressed destructively against others or one's self. Denying the potential that resides in oneself has far-reaching consequences. Accepting it takes courage and involves work.

# Guest Feature 5 **Diane Rayor on Translating Sappho and Euripides**

Diane Rayor, Professor Emerita of Classics at Grand Valley Statue University, discusses literary translation.

For the purposes of a Greek textbook, "translate" means "demonstrate your ability to read Greek." You do this by rendering a Greek passage into accurate English that makes sense.

If your goal is to craft a literary translation, however, accuracy is just the starting point. You must follow accuracy with introspection because every translation has a *skopos*—a goal or purpose. What do you want the translation to do? Who are your expected readers or audience? How can you best put into English the ideas and emotions, the rhythms and imagery of the original text? One cannot simply place tracing paper over the Greek and draw up an English copy. How do you make the best choices?

As a junior in college, I first tried literary translation when a Greek professor asked me to translate a Sappho poem (fragment 2) because she didn't like those available in English. My original *skopos* was simple—please my professor with a translation both accurate and poetic (something that sounded good in English and looked like a poem). The experience, however, turned out to be transformative for me, "like wind crashing on mountain oaks" (Sappho fr. 47.2) followed by the piercing radiance of the Colorado sun.

The request to translate one poem led to research on Sappho, her time and place (late 7th century Lesbos), and the performance of archaic lyric poetry. Sappho's songs survive as fragments pieced together from papyrus, parchment, a potsherd, and later authors' quotations. Therefore, translating from the most up-to-date, authoritative text possible is essential.

The fragmentary state of Sappho's songs also demonstrates that it is impossible for a translation to recreate the original. My goal is to draw the reader closer to Sappho, conveying the pleasures of her Greek to a non Greek-reading audience. My driving theory is that the experience of reading a translation should be as close as possible to that of reading the text in its original language.

The final version should sound good when read aloud as well as maintain meaning and imagery, neither adding to nor subtracting from the original. So many choices and challenges! Some strategies include reading the Greek aloud and noting techniques to emulate, such as tempo, repetition, rhyme, alliteration, or stanza form. When you translate, read your drafts aloud, too. As an example, read aloud Sappho fr. 140 in Greek and English. See if you can hear, feel, and see the sound, the beat:

κατθνάσκει, Κυθέρη', ἄβρος Ἄδωνις· τί κε θεῖμεν; καττύπτεσθε, κόραι, καὶ κατερείκεσθε χίτωνας.

*Girls:*

Delicate Adonis is dying, Aphrodite—what should we do? *Aphrodite:* Beat your breasts, daughters, and rend your dresses.1

Translations are inherently interpretations; the translator's reading becomes the new poem:

γλύκηα μᾶτερ, οὔτοι δύναμαι κρέκην τὸν ἴστον πόθῳ δάμεισα παῖδος βραδίναν δι' Ἀφροδίταν.

Sweet mother, I cannot weave—slender Aphrodite has overcome me with longing for a girl.

Sappho fr. 102

At the time this was published (2014), all other translations rendered the neuter παῖδος as "boy" rather than any of the other possibilities (girl, child, daughter, son, slave). For this particular fragment, "girl" fits best with Sappho's homoerotic work, rather than with her

<sup>1</sup> Diane J. Rayor, 2014. *Sappho: A New Translation of the Complete Works* (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) p. 44.

marriage or family songs.2 This is only one quick example of why you need to read Greek. Don't trust translators!

Translating Greek tragedy calls for additional strategies. For performance, the language must be clear and work in speech. Can the actors say these lines and the audience understand them—in a single hearing and at the tempo at which they should be spoken or sung? By revising a draft in collaboration with actors and their director during rehearsals, I fine-tune the translation into an actable script. When actors stumble on lines, I adjust and revise until they no longer do. In Euripides' *Hecuba*, the actor had difficulty saying, "Those in power must not rule wrongly" (282). Try saying this aloud! In returning to the Greek, which repeats κράτος, I changed it to the more precise (and powerful), "Those in power should not abuse that power." We all need help—attentive listening and collaboration are critical.

The first time hearing my draft scripts aloud always brings laughs and surprises. In the first rehearsal of Euripides' *Helen*, Menelaos asks for "a bier, empty of a body, bearing covers." Everyone heard Menelaos ask for a "beer" not a "bier"! Definitely neither the translator's nor Euripides' intended meaning. Now the line reads: "an open coffin, filled with robes, no body."

Plays provide many unique challenges. While my books include introductions and notes, performance needs to work without those guides. With cultural concepts that are tricky to convey succinctly, such as *xenia* (guest-host relationship) and supplication, I try to slip in extra guidance. In Euripides' *Medea,* the title character supplicates Kreon: "μή, πρός σε γονάτων τῆς τε νεογάμου κόρης." My translation adds the italicized words for clarity: "No, *I beg* you by your knees, by your newlywed daughter!" (324).3

Translation is an act of χάρις—gratitude and reciprocity that grants the original new life. Τhe Greek is a gift to us, and our English translation a gift to new readers in gratitude to the original, bringing each closer to the other.

To watch a video of Diane Rayor reading and commenting on her translations of Sappho, follow this link:

<sup>2</sup> https://sweetbitterpodcast.com/listen/

<sup>3</sup> Diane J. Rayor 2013. *Euripides' Medea: A New Translation* (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Diane Rayor. 4

For the Greek text of Sappho 31 and Diane Rayor's translation, see Appendix XIII.

To watch a video on performing Diane Rayor's translation of Euripides' *Helen*, follow this link:

Performing Euripides' Helen. 5

<sup>4</sup> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jGN\_4VhBLrw.

<sup>5</sup> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AGwU0X34cQk.

# Module 30 ἵημι **and** ἵστημι

# **The Verb**

In Greek and in English verbs have the same definition and functions. Verbs are words that represent actions (**throw**) and states of being (**be** or **exist**). They differ in the same fundamental way that Greek nouns differ from their English counterparts: they use endings to create meaning in a way that English does not. The Greek verb **(ῥῆμα)** in its finite form has an **ending** that indicates what **person** and **number** the **subject** is. The Greek infinitive has an ending that indicates that it is unmarked for **person** and **number**.

# **The** μι**-Verbs** ἵημι **and** ἵστημι

Though not as numerous as **ω-verbs**, **μι-verbs** occur frequently. **μι-verbs** conjugate differently from **ω-verbs** in some tenses, typically the present, imperfect, aorist, and sometimes the perfect. In conjugating these verb forms, learn which **stem** to combine with which ending. The **stem** is the base of the word to which the ending is joined. Once you have the correct stem and ending, combine them to create the correct form. You may memorize the stems and endings or you may learn how to combine stems and endings so that you can recognize the forms as you encounter them.

# **Present, Imperfect, and Aorist Tense Stems**

### Present and Imperfect Tense Stems

Use the long vowel grade stem for the singular and the short vowel grade for the plural. Note that the stems differ even within the same tense, mood, and voice.


### Mixed Aorist Tense Stems


### Root Aorist Tense Stem


### **Present, Imperfect, and Aorist Tense Endings**

Add to the correct tense stem.


**Present Infinitive Active**


#### **Primary Middle and Passive**

(use for the present)

**1st** -μαι -μεθα **2nd** -σαι -σθε **3rd** -ται -νται

**S Pl**

**Aorist Infinitive Active** -ναι

#### **Secondary Middle and Passive**

(use for the imperfect and aorist)

**S Pl 1st** -μην -μεθα **2nd** -σο -σθε **3rd** -το -ντο

**Present Infinitive Middle and Passive**

**Aorist Infinitive Middle**



# **The Conjugation of** ἵημι

The principal parts are these:

ἵημι ἥσω -ἧκα\* -εἷκα -εἷμαι -εἷθην


Remember that to conjugate correctly, you need to combine the correct stem with the correct endings.

### Present Indicative Active of ἵημι

**Singular:** long vowel grade, **ἱη-** or **ἱει-** + primary active endings. **Plural:** short vowel grade, **ἱε-**, + primary active endings.


1. In the third person plural, **ἱᾶσι (ν)**, epsilon **ε**, and alpha **α**, contract.

### Present Infinitive Active of ἵημι

Short vowel grade of the stem, **ἱε-**, + **-ναι**.

ἱέναι *to hurl* unmarked

1. Note that infinitives with the ending **-ναι** are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus, its accent is persistent. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

### Present Indicative Middle of ἵημι

Short vowel grade of the stem, **ἱε-**, + primary middle and passive endings.


### Present Infinitive Middle of ἵημι

Short vowel grade of the stem, **ἱε-**, + **-σθαι**.


1. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

### Present Indicative Passive of ἵημι

Short vowel grade of the stem, **ἱε-**, + primary middle and passive endings.


### Present Infinitive Passive of ἵημι

Short vowel grade of the stem, **ἱε-**, + **-σθαι**.


1. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

### Imperfect Indicative Active of ἵημι

**Singular:** long vowel grade, **ἱη-** or **ἱει-** + past indicative augment + secondary active endings. **Plural:** short vowel grade, **ἱε-**, + past indicative augment + secondary active endings.


### Imperfect Indicative Middle of ἵημι

Short vowel grade stem, **ἱε-,** + past indicative augment + secondary middle and passive endings.



### Imperfect Indicative Passive of ἵημι

Short vowel grade stem, **ἱε-,** + past indicative augment + secondary middle and passive endings.


### Aorist Indicative Active of ἵημι

**Singular:** ω-verb augmented stem, **ἡκ-**, + first aorist endings. **Plural:** short vowel grade stem, **ἑ-**, + past indicative augment, **εἱ-**, and secondary active endings.



### Aorist Infinitive Active of ἵημι

Long vowel grade, **εἱ-,** + **-ναι**.



### Aorist Indicative Middle of ἵημι

Short vowel grade, **ἑ-**, + past indicative augment, **εἱ-**, and secondary middle endings.


### Aorist Infinitive Middle of ἵημι

Short vowel grade, **ἑ-,** + **-σθαι**.


### Aorist Indicative Passive of ἵημι

**ω-verb** augmented consonant stem**, -εἱθ-**, + **ω-verb** passive endings.


### Aorist Infinitive Passive of ἵημι

**ω-verb** unaugmented consonant stem, **-ἑθ-**, + **-ηναι**.


1. Note that infinitives with the ending **-ναι** are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus, its accent is persistent. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

# **The Conjugation of** ἵστημι

The principal parts are these:

ἵστημι, στήσω, ἔστησα\*\* and ἔστην\*\*\*, ἕστηκα, ἕσταμαι, ἐστάθην

1. Note that two asterisks\*\* indicate a first aorist and three\*\*\* indicate a root aorist.

### Present Indicative Active of ἵστημι

**Singular:** long vowel grade, **ἱστη-**, + primary active endings. **Plural:** short vowel grade, **ἱστα-**, + primary active endings.


1. In the third person plural **ἱστᾶσι (ν)**, the alphas, **α + α**, have contracted.

### Present Infinitive Active of ἵστημι

Short vowel grade of the stem, **ἱστα-**, + **-ναι**.


1. Note that infinitives with the ending **-ναι** are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus, its accent is persistent. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

### Present Indicative Middle of ἵστημι

Short vowel grade of the stem, **ἱστα-**, + primary middle and passive endings.


### Present Infinitive Middle of ἵστημι

Short vowel grade of the stem, **ἱστα-** + **-σθαι**.

1. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

### Present Indicative Passive of ἵστημι

Short vowel grade of the stem, **ἵστα-**, + primary middle and passive endings.


### Present Infinitive Passive of ἵστημι

Short vowel grade of the stem, **ἱστα-**, + **-σθαι**.


1. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

### Imperfect Indicative Active of ἵστημι

**Singular:** long vowel grade, **ἱστη-**, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings. **Plural:** short vowel grade, **ἱστα-**, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings.



### Imperfect Indicative Middle of ἵστημι

Short vowel grade stem, **ἵστα-**, + past indicative augment and secondary middle and passive endings.


### Imperfect Indicative Passive of ἵστημι

Short vowel grade stem, **ἵστα-,** + past indicative augment and secondary middle and passive endings.



### Aorist Indicative Active of ἵστημι

Short vowel grade stem, **στη-**, + past indicative augment and secondary active endings.


### Aorist Infinitive Active of ἵστημι

Long vowel grade, **στη-,** + **-ναι**.


1. Note that infinitives with the ending **-ναι** are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus, its accent is persistent. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

### Aorist Indicative Passive of ἵστημι

**ω-verb** augmented consonant stem**, ἐσταθ-**, + **ω-verb** passive endings.


### Aorist Infinitive Passive of ἵστημι

**ω-verb** unaugmented consonant stem, **σταθ-**, + **-ηναι**.


1. Note that infinitives with the ending **-ναι** are ALWAYS accented on the penult. Thus, its accent is persistent. Remember that final **-αι** and **-οι** count as short for purposes of accentuation except in the optative, a mood learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

**Practice Translating Intransitive and Transitive Uses of ἵστημι.** Remember that transitive verbs take an accusative direct object and intransitive verbs do not take a direct object. A common intransitive verb in Greek is **ἔρχομαι**. Translate the below sentences, adapted from a variety of ancient Greek writers. To come to an accurate understanding of the sentences, use your knowledge of endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or function, remember to use the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I and the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII to assist you. After you finish translating these sentences, check your understanding with the answers in the Answer Key. After you have read though all of the sentences, read them again at least two more times. In each subsequent reading your understanding improves.


### **Vocabulary**


**Practice Translating μι-verbs.** Translate the below sentences and narrative, adapted from a variety of ancient Greek writers. To come to an accurate understanding of the sentences, use your knowledge of endings and of their functions. If you forget an ending or function, remember to use the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I and the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun**  **Chart** in Appendix VIII to assist you. After you finish translating the sentences, check your understanding with the answers in the Answer Key. After you have read though all of the sentences and all of the narrative, read them again at least two more times. In each subsequent reading your understanding improves.


### **Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Verbs**




*strong, stout, mighty*

1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Translating.** Translate the sentences below, which have been adapted from Lucian's *The Lover of Lies* (**Φιλοψευδής**). Remember the meanings and functions of the cases presented in Module 7. Use your memory to identify endings and their functions. If you forget an ending or a function, consult the **Adjective, Adverb, Noun, and Pronoun Chart** in Appendix VIII and the **Case and Function Chart** in Appendix I. Check your understanding with the translations in the Answer Key, making sure that you understand why each word translates as it does. Now go back and read each sentence two or three times, noticing with each rereading how much better your understanding of the sentence becomes. Make this a habit and you will improve quickly.

**Εὐκράτης:** ἐγὼ δὲ εἰς τὴν ὑστεραίαν ὡς ἐκεῖνός τι κατὰ τὴν ἀγορὰν πραγματεύεται ἔλαβον τὸ ὕπερονκαὶ ἐσχημάτισαὁμοίως. ἔπειταἐπειπὼν τὰς συλλαβὰς ἐκέλευσα ὑδροφορέειν. τὸ δὲ ἐνέπλησε τὸν ἀμφορέα καὶ ἐκόμισε. ἐκέλευσα τούτῳ παῦσαι καὶ μηκέτι ὑδροφορέειν καὶ αὖθις ὕπερον ποιεῖσθαι. τὸ δὲ οὐκέτι μοι πείθεσθαι ἐθέλει, ἀλλ' ὑδροφορεῖ ἀεί. ἄχρι δὴ ἐμπίπλησι ἡμῖν ὕδατος τὴν οἰκίαν καὶ ἡ δὲ ἐπαντλεῖται. ἐγὼ δὲ ἀμηχανάω τῷ πράγματι καὶ δείδω. εἰ ὁ Παγκράτης ἐπανέρχεται, ἀγανακτήσει. τοῦτο ὅπερ καὶ ἐγένετο. ἀξίνην ἔλαβον καὶ διακόπτω τὸ ὕπερον εἰς δύο μέρη. τὰ δέ, ἑκάτερον τὸ μέρος, ἀμφορέας ἔλαβε καὶ ὑδροφόρει καὶ ἀνθ' ἑνὸς δύο μοι ἐγένοντο οἱ διάκονοι. ἐν τούτῳ καὶ ὁ Παγκράτης ἦλθε καὶ συνίησι τὸ γενόμενον. ἐκεῖνα μὲν αὖθις ἐποίησε ξύλα, ὥσπερ ἦν πρὸ τῆς ἐπῳδῆς. αὐτὸς δὲ ἀπέλιπέ με λαθών. καὶ οὐκ οἶδ' ὅποι ἀφανὴς ᾤχετο.

**Δεινόμαχος:** δύνασαι ἄνθρωπον ποιεῖν ἐκ τοῦ ὑπέρου;

**Εὐκράτης:** νὴ Δί' ἐξ ἡμισείας γε· οὐκέτι γὰρ εἰς τὸ ἀρχαῖον οἷος τέ εἰμι ἀπάγειν αὐτό, εἰ ἅπαξ γίγνεται ὑδροφόρος. ἀλλὰ δεήσει ἡμῖν ἐπικλυσθῆναι τὴν οἰκίαν.

### **Adverbs, Prepositions, and Verbs**




1. The asterisk indicates the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary, which you are to memorize.

**Practice Parsing Greek Sentences.** Parse each word of the sentences found below. For nouns and pronouns, give their case and function. For verbs, give their person, number, tense, mood, and voice. For adverbs and conjunctions, identify them. For prepositional phrases, give the preposition and the preposition's object. For adjectives, tell what noun they agree with in gender, number, and case.

ὁρῶ ὅτι ταύτην μὲν οὖν χρὴ νομίζειν οὐ τὴν αἰτίαν τῶν πάντων κακῶν εἶναι.

δύνασαι ἄνθρωπον ποιεῖν ἐκ τοῦ ὑπέρου;

Check your answers with those in the Answer Key.

**Sappho of Lesbos, Σαπφώ Λέσβου, c. 630–570 BCE.** Regarded in antiquity as the tenth Muse, Sappho and her poetry are widely praised for their lyrical excellence. Time has taken from us most of what Sappho wrote and left to us even less information about her life. She is said to have had three brothers, two of whom, Kharaxos and Larikhos, she mentions in the poem below. This poem, preserved in writing on papyrus and referred to as the Brother's Poem, was recently discovered. It was dug up by tomb raiders. From it, the classicist and papyrologist, Dirk Obbink reconstructed the Greek text. For a view of the fragment un-punctuated and not corrected, follow this link:

Sappho Poem. 1

To Dirk Obbink's text, I have added vocabulary, notes, and a translation.

### **Meter (\_\_ = a long vowel; u = a short vowel; x = anceps, a long or short vowel):**

\_\_ u \_\_ x \_\_ u u \_\_ u \_\_ \_\_ \_\_ u \_\_ x \_\_ u u \_\_ u \_\_ \_\_ \_\_ u \_\_ x \_\_ u u \_\_ u \_\_ \_\_ \_\_ u u \_\_ u

ἀλλ' ἄϊ θρύλησθα Χάραξον ἔλθην \***ἄϊ = αἰεί** *ever, always* νᾶϊ σὺν πλήαι. τὰ μέν, οἴομαι, Ζεῦς **θρύλησθα** *you babble* ταῦτα νόησθαι, \***ἔλθην = ἐλθεῖν** *to come*

οἶδε σύμπαντές τε θέοι· σὲ δ᾽οὐ χρῆ **Χάραξος, ου ὁ** *Kharaxos, Sappho's brother* **\*νᾶϊ = νηί: ναῦς, νεώς ἡ** *ship* **πλήαι = πλέᾳ: πλέος, -α, -ον** *full* **τὰ μέν** *these things* **οἴομαι** *think* **Ζεῦς = Ζεύς νοέω** *think on, consider* **χρῆ = χρή** *it is necessary*

ἀλλὰ καὶ πέμπην ἔμε καὶ κέλεσθαι **πέμπην = πέμπειν** *to send* πόλλα λίσσεσθαι βασίληαν Ἤραν **κέλομαι** *order, command; call* ἐξίκεσθαι τυίδε σάαν ἄγοντα **λίσσομαι** *pray*

νᾶα Χάραξον **βασίληαν = βασιλείαν** *royal, kingly* **Ἤρα, Ἤρας ἡ** *Hera* **ἐξικνέομαι** *arrive* **τυίδε** *here* **σάος, -α, -ον** *safe* **ἄγων, ἄγοντος ὁ** *driving* **νᾶα = ναῦν: ναῦς, νεώς ἡ** *ship*

<sup>1</sup> http://web.archive.org/web/20140130212614/http:/www.papyrology.ox.ac.uk/Fragments/ Obbink.Sappho7.draft.pdf.

κἄμμ' ἐπεύρην ἀρτέμεας. τὰ δ' ἄλλα **κἄμμ' = καὶ ἄμμε = καὶ ἡμᾶς** πάντα δαιμόνεσσιν ἐπιτρόπωμεν· **ἐπεύρην = ἐπευρεῖν** *to find* εὐδίαι γὰρ ἐκ μεγάλαν ἀήταν **ἀρτεμής, ές** *safe* αἶψα πέλονται. **δαίμων, -ονος ὁ or ἡ** *god, goddess*

**ἐπιτρόπωμεν = ἐπιτρέπωμεν** *let us entrust* **εὐδία, -ας ἡ** *fair weather* **μεγάλαν = μεγάλων ἀήταν = ἀητῶν: ἀήτης, -ου ὁ** *gale, wind* **αἶψα** *quickly* **πέλομαι** *be*

τῶν κε βόλληται βασίλευς Ὀλύμπω **τῶν κε = ὧν ἄν** *whosoever's* \*δαίμον' ἐκ πόνων ἐπάρωγον ἤδη **βόλληται = βούληται** *wishes* καὶ πολύολβοι· **δαίμων, -ονος ὁ or ἡ** *god, goddess*

\*\*κἄμμες, αἴ κε τὰν κεφάλαν ἀέρρη **κἄμμες = καὶ ἡμεῖς** Λάριχος καὶ δή ποτ᾽ ἄνηρ γένηται, **αἴ κε = εἰ ἄν** αἶψα λύθειμεν. **ἀέρρη = ἀείρῃ** *raises*

περτρόπην, κῆνοι μάκαρες πέλονται **Ὀλύμπω = Ὀλύμπου: Ὄλυμπος, -ου ὁ** *Olympos* **πόνος, -ου ὁ** *pain, toil* **ἐπάρωγος, -οῦ ὁ** *helper, aider* **περτρόπην = περιτροπέειν** *turn* **κῆνοι = κεῖνοι μακάρ, -άρος** *blessed* **πολύολβος, -ον** *rich, wealthy*

καὶ μάλ' ἐκ πόλλαν βαρυθυμίαν κεν **κεφάλαν = κεφάλην: κεφάλη, κεφάλης ἡ** *head* **Λάριχος, Λαρίχου ὁ** *Larikhos, Sappho's brother* **ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ** *man, husband* **γένηται** *becomes* **πόλλαν = πόλλων βαρυθυμίαν = βαρυθυμίων: βαρυθυμία, βαρυθυμίας** *heavy heart* **λύθειμεν** *we would be freed*

### **Variant Readings:**

\*δαίμον' ἐκ πόνων ἐπ' ἀρηγον' ἤδη περτρόπην: *turn their daimon away from toils toward a helper.*

\*\*αἴ κε τὰν κεφάλαν ἀέργης/ Λάριχος καὶ δή ποτ᾽ ἄνηρ γένηται: *if lazyheaded Larikhos every really becomes a man.*

### **Prose Translation**

You constantly go on about Kharaxos coming home with a full ship. Things which, I think, Zeus and all the other gods know and which you need not think on. Rather send and order me to offer many a prayer to our royal Hera that Kharaxos return at the helm of a safe ship and find us sound. All the rest we entrust to the gods. For calm from great storms quickly ensues. Whosoever's fate Olympian Zeus wishes now to turn from trouble to triumph, presently becomes fortunate and blessed. But for us, should Larikhos lift his head and ever really become a man, then surely right away we would be freed from great despair.

**Module 30 Top 250 Vocabulary to be Memorized.** Like learning the alphabet and endings, memorizing vocabulary is essential to acquiring language. The better you memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring vocabulary words the greater mastery of the language you will have.

### **Adjectives and Adverb**

**ἄν** (adverb or particle) indicates something hypothetical, non-factual, or with the indicative something repeated over time

**δύο** *two*

**ἕκαστος, ἑκάστη, ἕκαστον** *each*

**ἴσος, ἴση, ἴσον** *equal, as many as; similar to* + dat.

**καλός, καλή, καλόν** *beautiful, noble, good*

**ὅμοιος, ὁμοίᾱ, ὅμοιον** *like, resembling* + dat.

**τρεῖς, οἱ, αἱ; τρία τά** *three*

**Verb**

**ζάω (ζῇς, ζῇ), ζήσω, ἔζησα, ἔζηκα, ------, ------** *live, breathe, be full of life*

# **Etymology Corner XXX by Dr. E. Del Chrol**

### Technical Terms 26

**Satura Lanx.** Module 13 has given us some technical terms you may never have heard before to describe the changes some vowels go through, here in relation to nouns in declension. **Ablaut**, **contraction**, the **loss of the intervocalic sigma** or **digamma**, or **quantitative metathesis** seem less scary when you match their process to their etymologies.


**What to Study and Do 30.** Before moving on to *Ancient Greek II: A 21st-Century Approach*, make sure that you have memorized the endings for **μι-verbs** and that you understand how to translate and identify each form.

**Learning Tip 30: What is Mind?** Einstein wrote that the mind is revealed in the world. His imagining of a world with a unified coherence led to his overcoming the normal point of view of his own time and to a completely new and radical conceptual system that predicted among other things the relativity of time, one consequence of which is that the past, present, and future all currently exist. At some future point Einstein's conceptual system will lead to another's. And so it will go. Today's fundamental questions will give way to other fundamental questions of tomorrow. For thousands of years what is mind has captured the imagination of many of the world's thinkers. Is the mind a complex and recreatable arrangement of neurons that results in consciousness? Will artificial intelligence have the ability to think deeply and create new and radical conceptual systems? Is the mind something fundamentally different and impossible for us to create artificially? Is there a superconsciousness that exists in the universe, that creativity forms a part of and that we can experience? As time passes, we continue to work on creating conceptual systems to answer these questions.

# **Self-Assessment Modules 23–30**

Rate yourself on a scale of 1 to 10, where 10 represents mastery and 1 its opposite. Answer each of the below thoughtfully. For any score less than a 7, review the material.

# **MEMORY**


# **APPLICATION AND CONCEPTS**


### **READING AND TRANSLATING**


# **Appendices**

# **Appendix I: Case and Function Chart**

In making this chart, a primary consideration has been to simplify the complicated noun and pronoun case system so as to represent as many different functions as possible in the fewest number of categories. The Genitive of Dependence, for example, is a catchall category including almost any genitive noun that must be translated with another noun. Likewise the Dative Indirect Object covers a number of incidences typically found under the Dative of Reference or Dative of Interest categories. The underlying philosophy is to explain much with less. I recommend you keep this chart at your elbow when you translate. I also recommend that you consult Smyth's *Greek Grammar* or *The Cambridge Grammar of Classical Greek* for fuller differentiated categories and examples. Because a few functions often account for the majority of occurrences, this chart presents the functions in order of frequency. Frequency was determined by parsing one complete book of Herodotos and two plays of Euripides. An exception is the genitive, dative, or accusative case as an object of a preposition, which is placed last, though it occurs with great frequency. This chart covers information learned in both Part I and Part II of the *21st-Century* series.

**None** indicates that there is no preposition to supply when translating from Greek into English. **None (ἐκ, ἀπό)** indicates that there is no preposition to supply when translating from Greek into English and gives the preposition that is commonly present in ancient Greek.



**CASE FUNCTION PREPOSITION TO SUPPLY** 5. **Absolute:** ἐπιφανοῦς **τούτου γενομένου this being** *clear* **none** 6. **Comparison: ἵππου** ὠκύτερος *swifter* **than a horse** *than* 7. **With Certain Adjectives or Adverbs: σοῦ** ἄξιος *worthy* **of you**; ἀξίως **λόγου** *worthy* **of record** *of* 8. **Value:** αὐτὸν **πολλοῦ** τιμᾷ *she honors him* **a lot**; **μισθοῦ** τὴν θύραν ἤνοιγεν *he opened the door* **for a fee none** or *for, of* 9. **Separation:** τὰ πηδάλια παρέλυσε **νεῶν** *he freed the rudders* **from the ships** *from, away from* 10. **Time:** δέκα **ἡμερῶν** *within ten* **days** *within* 11. **Object of Preposition** (often shows motion away from): ὑπὸ **Κύρου** *by* **Kyros**; ἐκ **τῆς οἰκίᾱς** *from* **the house none Dative** 1. **Indirect Object:** δίκην **αὐτῇ** δίδωμι, *I give justice* **to her**; **ὑμῖν** ὁρτὴν ποιέω, *I hold a festival* **for you** *to, for* 2. **Object of Verb or Verb's Prefix:** ἐπὶ κρήνην **αὐτοῖς** ἡγήσασθαι, *to lead* **them** *to the spring*; τὴν ἐλευθερίην **ὑμῖν περι**τίθημι *I place freedom* **around you none** or *varies with*  **the prefix's meaning** 3. **Means or Instrument:** ἔχουσιν αὐτὸ **δόλῳ**, *they hold it* **by trickery**; ἔρχεται **νηί**, *she goes*  **by ship** *by, with* 4. **Possession** (often with verb 'to be'): ὄνομα **αὐτῇ** ἦν Νίτητις, **her** *name was Nitetis*; **τῷ Κύρῳ** ὁ υἱός, *a son* **to Kyros** *to, of* 5. **Dative with an Adjective, Adverb, or Noun: αὐτῷ** ἀσφαλές εἶναι *to be safe* **for him** πρὸς ἡδονὴν **αὐτῇ** *for pleasure* **to her** *for, to* **6. Dative with a Verb and Infinitive:** δεῖ **αὐτῇ** ἰέναι *it is necessary* **for her** *to go for* 7. **Dative of Respect:** ἀνὴρ **ἡλικίᾳ** νέος *a man young* **in age** *in* 8. **Time When:** πέμπτῃ **ἡμέρᾳ** *on the fifth* **day** *on*




The above are all case functions for nouns and pronouns. Remember that adjectives, which include participles, always agree with the nouns or pronouns they modify in gender, number, and case. If no noun or pronoun is present, supply one from the gender and number of the adjective unless it is clear that a noun or pronoun must be supplied from context.

# **Appendix II: Infinitives**

Remember that in English and in Greek the infinitive is unmarked for person and for number. Ιt is classified as a verbal noun and is best understood by thinking of its function as completing or enhancing the meaning of adjectives, clauses, nouns, and verbs. This is why the infinitive is referred to as complement. Sometimes classified as a mood, the infinitive is potential in meaning, **ἐν δυνάμει**, because its action may or may not be realized. There are two types of infinitives, the declarative and the dynamic. Both the declarative and the dynamic infinitives refer to actions which exist **potentially** or **ἐν δυνάμει**. The dynamic infinitive is negated by the abverb **μή** *not* and not **οὐ** *not*. **οὐ** *not* typically negates the **declarative infinitive** with some exceptions. For more on the **declarative** and **dynamic infinitives**, see *CGCG* 51.

### **The Infinitive as a Complement**

(1) As a complement to modal verbs, δεῖ, δύναμαι, ἔξεστι, ἔχω, κιδυνεύω, προσήκει, χρή:

**δεῖ ποιέειν** *it is necessary to create.*

(2) As a complement to verbs of wishing and desiring αἱρέομαι, βουλεύω, βούλομαι, διανοέομαι, δοκέει, ἐθέλω, σπουδάζω:

**αἱρέομαι ὀρχέεσθαι** *I choose to dance.*

(3) As a complement to knowledge verbs διδάσκω, ἐπίσταμαι, μανθάνω: **διδάσκω ἑλληνίζειν** *I teach how to speak Greek.*

(4) As a complement to verbs of command, compulsion, persuasion,

prevention, αἰτέω, ἀναγκάζω, ἀπέχω, δέομαι, εἴργω, κελεύω, πείθω:

**αἰτέω σὲ νομίζειν** *I ask you to believe.*

(5) As a complement to verbs of starting and stopping, ἄρχομαι, μέλλω, παύω:

**ἄρχομαι εἰδέναι** *I begin to know.*

(6) Epexegetically as a complement to adjectives and nouns, ἀγαθόν, ἄξιον, δεινόν, καλόν, καιρός, νομός, σχολή, ὥρα:

**δεινόν ὁράειν** *It is awesome to see.*

(7) Purpose often with verbs of giving, motion, receiving, taking:


### **The Infinitive as a Noun**


### **The Infinitive as a Finite Verb**



# **Appendix III: Apposition of Nouns and Pronouns**

A common grammatical occurrence that happens in all cases of nouns and pronouns is apposition. Consider the following examples. In each the main noun is bolded and the noun in apposition is underlined.

### **Nominative**

**ἐγὼ** ταῦτα τῷ Ὁμήρῳ, ποιητής, δίδωμι. *I, a poet, give these things to Homer.* 

#### **Genitive**

τὸ βιβλίον **τοῦ Ὁμήρου**, ποιητοῦ, σοὶ δίδωμι. *I give to you the book of Homer, a poet.*

#### **Dative**

ἐγὼ ταῦτα **τῷ Ὁμήρῳ**, ποιητῇ, δίδωμι. *I give these things to Homer, a poet.*

### **Αccusative**

ὁράει **τὸν Ὅμηρον** ποιητήν. *She sees Homer, the poet.*

### **Vocative** ὦ **βασιλεῦ**, Κῦρε, ἔλθε. *King Kyros, come.*

The important items to note are that the two nouns refer to the same person or thing and that each has the same case.

### **Appendix IV: Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronouns**

### **First and Second Declension Noun Endings**


### **Third Declension Noun Endings**


#### **First Declension Nouns**


#### **2nd Declension Nouns Third Declension Nouns**


### **1) Subtype 1 Nouns with Stem Ending in ρ- or ερ-:**


**2) Subtype 2 Nouns with Stem Ending in σ-** (ablaut, contraction, and disappearance of intervocalic sigma, **-σ-**)**:** 

**Neuter Nouns Ending in –ος: γένος** *race*


### **Neuter Nouns Ending in –ας: γῆρας,** *old age*


### **Feminine and Masculine Nouns Ending in ης-: τριήρης** *trireme*


### **Proper Nouns Ending in ης-: Σωκράτης** *Sokrates*


### **Subtype 3 Nouns with Stem Ending in ι-:**

### **Feminine**


### **Subtype 4 Nouns with Stem Ending in ηυ- or ηϝ-: Masculine**



**Relative Pronoun**



#### **3rd Person Pronoun**


#### **Adjectives and Pronouns, Mixed Declension**


#### **Adjectives and Pronouns**


#### **The Indefinite Adjective and Pronoun**

**The Definitive Article**


### **Three Termination Adjectives**


### **Two Termination Adjectives**


### **Mixed Declension Adjectives**



#### **Mixed Declension Adjective**

#### **Third Declension Adjective**


### **First and Second Declension Noun Endings**



#### **Third Declension Noun Endings**


#### **First Declension Nouns**




#### **1) Subtype 1 Nouns with Stem Ending in ρ- or ερ-:**


**2) Subtype 2 Nouns with Stem Ending in σ-** (ablaut, contraction, and disappearance of intervocalic sigma, **-σ-**)**:** 

#### **Neuter Nouns Ending in –ος: γένος** *race*


#### **Neuter Nouns Ending in –ας: γῆρας,** *old age*


### **Feminine and Masculine Nouns Ending in ης-: τριήρης** *trireme*


### **Proper Nouns Ending in ης-: Σωκράτης** *Sokrates*


### **Subtype 3 Nouns with Stem Ending in ι-:**

### **Feminine**


### **Subtype 4 Nouns with Stem Ending in ηυ- or ηϝ-:**

### **Masculine**


#### **Relative Pronoun**



#### **3rd Person Pronoun**


#### **Adjectives and Pronouns, Mixed Declension**


#### **Adjectives and Pronouns**



#### **The Indefinite Adjective and Pronoun The Definitive Article**


#### **Three Termination Adjectives**



### **Two Termination Adjectives**

**N** ἄδικος ἄδικον **G** ἀδίκου ἀδίκου **D** ἀδίκῳ ἀδίκῳ **A** ἄδικον ἄδικον **V** ἄδικε ἄδικον

**N** ἄδικοι ἄδικα **G** ἀδίκων ἀδίκων **D** ἀδίκοις ἀδίκοις **A** ἀδίκους ἄδικα **V** ἄδικοι ἄδικα

**Mixed Declension Adjectives**



#### **Mixed Declension Adjective**

#### **Third Declension Adjective**


# **Appendix V: The** ω**-Verb**

### **Indicative Αctive**


#### **Indicative Middle and Passive**


#### **Infinitive Αctive**


#### **Infinitive Passive**


# **Appendix VI:** εἰμί**,** εἶμι**, and** οἶδα

#### **εἰμί**


### **Ιnfinitive:** εἶναι

### **εἶμι**


### **Present Infinitive Active:** ἰέναι

### **Present Participles of** εἰμί **and** εἶμι:

### **εἰμί** *being*


### **εἶμι** *coming, going*


### **εἰμί** *being*



### **εἶμι** *coming, going*

### **οἶδα**

### **Perfect Indicative Active (with present meanings)**


**2nd** οἶσθα, οἶδας

**3rd** οἶδε (ν)

**1st** ἴσμεν or οἴδαμεν

**2nd** ἴστε, οἴδατε

**3rd** ἴσᾱσι (ν)

### **Perfect Infinitive Active (with present meanings)**

εἰδέναι

# **Appendix VII: Additional** μι**-Verbs** ἀπόλλῡμι**,**  δείκνῡμι**,** δίδωμι**,** δύναμαι**,** ἵημι**,** ἵστημι**,** κεῖμαι**,**  τίθημι**,** φημί

### **ἀπόλλῡμι**



#### **Present Infinitive Active**

ἀπολλύναι


**Future Indicative Active, Middle, and Passive** Same as **ω-verbs**

### **Aorist Indicative Active, Middle, and Passive** Same as **ω-verbs**

### **δείκνῡμι**


#### **Present Infinitive Active**

δεικνύναι


#### **Future Indicative Active, Middle, and Passive**

Same as **ω-verbs**

**Aorist Indicative Active, Middle and Passive** Same as **ω-verbs**

#### **δίδωμι**


#### **Present Infinitive Active**

διδόναι


Same as **ω-verbs**


#### **δύναμαι**

#### **Present Infinitive Middle and Passive**

δύνασθαι

#### **Future Indicative Middle**

Same as **ω-verbs**

### **Aorist Indicative Passive**  Same as **ω-verbs**

#### **ἵημι**


#### **Present Infinitive Active**

ἱέναι


**Aorist Infinitive Middle** 


**Aorist Infinitive Passive** 

Same as **ω-verbs**


### **ἵστημι**


#### **Aorist Indicative Passive**

None

#### **Aorist Infinitive Active**

στῆναι

#### **Aorist Infinitive Middle**

None

#### **Aorist Infinitive Passive**

None

#### **κεῖμαι**


#### **Present Infinitive Middle and Passive**

κεῖσθαι

#### **Future Indicative Middle**

Same as **ω-verbs**





**Aorist Indicative Passive**

Same as **ω-verbs**

#### **Aorist Infinitive Active**

θεῖναι

#### **Aorist Infinitive Middle**

θέσθαι

#### **Aorist Infinitive Passive**

Same as **ω-verbs**

#### **φημί**


#### **Present Infinitive Active**

φάναι

## **Appendix VIII: Adjective, Adverb, Noun, Pronoun Chart**


1


### **Appendix IX: Verb Chart**


1

\* – VI, minus ending, minus p.i.a., plus -ησ-

\*\* – Fixed Accents on 2nd Aorist Active Participle



**Perfect Middle/Passive Participle** -μένος, -μένη, -μένον

4


# **Appendix X: Accents**

**Possibilities for Accent.** Carefully read the possibilities and restrictions for each of the three accents. Note where in a Greek word the acute, grave, and circumflex occur. These possibilities account for all accentuation options in all words.

### **ACUTE ACCENT:**

**Possibilities:** appears over the antepenult, penult, and ultima; appears over short vowels or long vowels or diphthongs.

**Restrictions:** CAN appear over the ultima ONLY when a pause follows, i.e., at the end of a sentence or before a comma or semicolon.

CANNOT appear over the penult when it is accented and contains a long vowel or diphthong and the ultima contains a short vowel.

CAN appear over the antepenult ONLY when the ultima contains a short vowel.

5

### **GRAVE ACCENT:**

**Possibilities:** appears ONLY over the ultima;

appears over short vowels or long vowels or diphthongs.

**Restrictions:** MUST replace an acute accent over the ultima when another word follows directly without a pause.

CANNOT appear otherwise.

### **CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT:**

**Possibilities:** appears ONLY over the penult and ultima; appears ONLY over long vowels or diphthongs.

**Restrictions:** MUST appear over the penult when the penult is accented and contains a long vowel or diphthong AND the ultima contains a short vowel.

CANNOT appear over the penult when the ultima contains a long vowel or diphthong.

Since the circumflex accent (**῀**) only occurs over long vowels or diphthongs, there is no need to include it when alpha, iota, or upsilon have circumflex accents over them as in δρᾶμα.

**Chart for Possibilities of Accent.** The chart is a schematic of where all accents may occur in all Greek words. Commit this chart to memory. Memorization initiates the process of understanding. As your understanding increases, your ability to remember the chart and to accent correctly improves.

### **Key**



### **Accent Possibilites Explained:**

1. -a-pe-ú + pause

(You may have an acute on the ultima when a pause (period, comma) follows the word.)

2. -a-pe-ù + word without pause

(You may have a grave on the ultima when there is no pause.)

3. -a-pé-u BUT NOT a-pé-ŭ, when the penult is long (pē) and the ultima is short (ŭ)

(You may have an acute on the penult EXCEPT with a long penult and a short ultima.)

4. -á-pe-ŭ

(You may have an acute on the antepenult IF the ultima is short.)

5. -a-pe-ũ Note that the upsilon is long

(You may have a circumflex over a long ultima.)

6. -a-pê-ŭ MUST, if ē is accented BUT never a circumflex on the penult (pê) if the ultima is long (ū)

(You may have a circumflex on the penult if it is accented and long AND the ultima is short.)

**Recessive and Persistent Accent.** Almost all forms of the Greek verb have recessive accent. Nouns and other parts of speech have persistent accent.

# **Recessive Accent**

In recessive accent, the accent occurs as far from the ultima as the possibilities of accent allow. Most verb forms have recessive accent.

Practical Application of the Chart for Possibilities of Accent in Recessive Accent. Read from top to bottom and apply the first line that meets the criteria:

**(1) Verbs of three or more syllables:**

If the ultima is short, put an acute on the antepenult. Stop! ἔπαυε

If the ultima is long, put an acute on the penult. Stop! παυσάτω

**(2) Verbs of two syllables:**

If the penult is long AND the ultima is short, put a circumflex on the penult. Stop! (A helpful acronym is PLUS: Penult Long; Ultima Short.) παῦε

In all other cases (there are three) put an acute on the penult. Stop!


**Practice with Recessive Accent.** Check your answers below.


# **Persistent Accent**

When presented with any noun in a lexicon, the nominative case of the noun is given first, the genitive case of the noun, second, and the article, third:


Persistent accent remains the same accent (acute, grave, circumflex), over the vowel or diphthong it is on, as given by the nominative singular in all forms of the word, unless forced by the rules for possibilities of accent to change in nature (acute, circumflex, grave) or position (antepenult, penult, ultima). If an accent violates one of the possibilities (you cannot have a circumflex on the antepenult), the accent will change in nature (acute, grave, circumflex) before position (antepenult, penult, ultima). The accent of most noun forms is persistent and is learned as part of the vocabulary.

# **Practical Application of the Chart for Possibilities of Accent in Persistent Accent**

Consider the following examples.


### **Explanations.**


### **Use these examples and the Chart on Possibilities of Accent to help you complete the persistent accent practice.**

**Practice with Persistent Accent.** The first word in bold gives the persistent accent. Accent the unbolded words. Answers follow.


**Additional Practice with Recessive Accent.** Check your answers below.


**Additional Practice with Persistent Accent.** The first word in bold gives the persistent accent. Accent the unbolded words. Answers follow.


#### **Answers to Recessive Accent Practice**


### **Answers to Persistent Accent Practice**


10.**αἴξ:** αἶγας, αἶγες, αἶγα

11.**σώφρων:** σῶφρον, σώφρονα, σωφρόνων

#### **Answers to Additional Recessive Accent Practice**


### **Answers to Additional Persistent Accent Practice**


# **Appendix XI: Herodotos' Mixed Dialect**

The text of Herodotos is a mixture of Ionic, Attic, and sometimes Doric forms. It is uncertain whether Herodotos' text was originally purely Ionic and later corrupted by scribes to include Attic and Doric forms, or whether it was originally a mixture of the three. Whatever the case, the following indicates differences between the dialect of Herodotos and the Attic dialect.


11.In the third declension, forms remain uncontracted: **γένεος** not **γένους**. 12.In the third declension, nouns that end in **-ις** decline like this:


13.Personal pronouns are not contracted; for example, **σέο** or **σεῦ** not **σοῦ**.

14.For the personal pronouns, **τοι** is found at times for **σοι**.


### 25.Commonly occurring pronouns are the following:


# **Appendix XII: The Ionic-Attic Dialect**

The Ionic and Attic dialects share the following features:


#### **πόλ-εως**.


The Ionic and Attic dialects differ in these features:


### **Appendix XIII: Sappho 31**

φαίνεταί μοι κῆνος ἴσος θέοισιν ἔμμεν᾽ ὤνηρ, ὄττις ἐνάντιός τοι ἰσδάνει καὶ πλάσιον ἆδυ φωνείσας ὐπακούει

καὶ γελαίσας ἰμέροεν, τό μ᾽ ἦ μὰν καρδίαν ἐν στήθεσιν ἐπτόαισεν, ὠς γὰρ ἔς σ᾽ ἴδω βρόχε᾽ ὤς με φώναισ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ἒν ἔτ᾽ εἴκει,

ἀλλὰ κὰμ μὲν γλῶσσα <μ'> ἔαγε, λέπτον δ᾽ αὔτικα χρῷ πῦρ ὐπαδεδρόμηκεν,

ὀππάτεσσι δ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ἒν ὄρημμ᾽, ἐπιρρόμβεισι δ᾽ ἄκουαι,

†έκαδε μ᾽ ἴδρως ψῦχρος κακχέεται† τρόμος δὲ παῖσαν ἄγρει, χλωροτέρα δὲ ποίας ἔμμι, τεθνάκην δ᾽ ὀλίγω ᾽πιδεύης φαίνομ᾽ ἔμ᾽ αὔτᾳ·

ἀλλὰ πὰν τόλματον ἐπεὶ †καὶ πένητα†

David A. Campbell, *Greek Lyric: Sappho, Alcaeus* (Cambridge, Mass.: Loeb Classical Library, 1990, pp. 78–80).

Note: χλωροτέρα is green like new, fresh, moist wood. (Not green as in envy.)

To me it seems that man has the fortune of gods, whoever sits beside you and close, who listens to you sweetly speaking

and laughing temptingly. My heart flutters in my breast whenever I even glance at you— I can say nothing,

my tongue is broken. A delicate fire runs under my skin, my eyes see nothing, my ears roar, cold sweat

rushes down me, trembling seizes me, I am greener than grass. To myself I seem needing but little to die.

Yet all can be endured/dared, since . . .

Diane J. Rayor, *Sappho: A New Translation of the Complete Works* (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014). Introduction by André Lardinois. Featured in Daniel Mendelsohn's article:

http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/03/16/girl-interrupted?

http://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/hearing-sappho

### **Appendix XIV: Artists, Philosophers, Thinkers, Writers**

**Aiskhylos (Aeschylus) of Athens, Αἰσχύλος ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 525–456 BCE**. Aiskhylos wrote satyr plays and tragedies. He composed about ninety plays, of which seven survive. Many fragments from his other plays are found quoted by other later authors or on Egyptian papyrus scraps. Aristoteles writes that Aiskhylos expanded the number of characters in the theatre and allowed them to interact with each other instead of only with the chorus. One of his plays, *Prometheus Bound*, may have been written by his son, Euphorion. Another of his plays, *The Persians*, is the only extant tragedy concerning contemporary events that survives.

**Anakreon of Teos, Ἀνακρέων ὁ Τήϊος, c.582–c.485 BCE.** Alive during the tumultuous Archaic Age (700–480 BCE), Anakreon was born in Teos, a Greek city on the border of the Persian empire. In 545 the Persians attacked the Greek city-states lying on and off the coast of Asia Minor and Anakreon fought against the invaders, though, he says, he did nothing noteworthy in the battle.

**Anaxagoras of Klazomenai**, **Ἀναξαγόρας, Κλαζομεναί, c. 500–428 BCE.** Anaxagoras was a pre-Socratic philosopher and a good friend of the Athenian statesman Perikles. Anaxagoras spent much of his time in the cultural center of his day, Athens. He declared that the sun was a stone and not a god. The Athenians may have brought him to court and had him exiled on charges of impiety and pro-Persian sympathies. It is uncertain if the charges were real, political, or fabricated by later biographers.

**Anaximandros of Miletos**, **Ἀναξίμανδρος ὁ Μιλήσιος, c.610–546 BCE.** Anaximandros was a pre-Socratic philosopher who put forth the theory that the infinite was the universe's origin.

**Anaximenes of Miletos**, **Ἀναξιμένης ὁ Μιλήσιος, c.586–526 BCE.** Anaximenes was a pre-Socratic philosopher who proposed air as the universe's prime substance.

**Anna Komnene of Byzantium, Ἄννα Κομνηνή, c. 1083–1150 CE.** Daughter of the Byzantine emperor, Alexios I Komnenos, Anna Komnene was educated in Greek history and literature, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, and theology. After her father's death, she and her mother attempted a coup against her brother John II Komnenos. It failed. In exile Anna wrote the *Alexiad*, a history of her father, written in Attic Greek.

**Antiphon of Rhamnos**, **Ἀντιφῶν ὁ Ῥαμνούσιος, c. 480–411 BCE.** Antiphon was an orator, engaged in fifth-century Athenian political and intellectual life.

**Appian of Alexandria, Ἀππιανὸς ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς c.95–165 CE.** A Greek historian with Roman citizenship, Appian was born in Alexandria. He wrote the *Roman History* (**Ρωμαϊκά**) in twenty-four books, some complete and others in fragments.

**Aristarkhos of Samos**, **Ἀρίσταρχος ὁ Σάμιος, c. 310–c. 230 BCE.** Aristarkhos was an astronomer and a mathematician who placed the sun at the center of the universe in the first known heliocentric view of the universe.

**Aristophanes of Athens, Ἀριστοφάνης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 446–c. 386 BCE.** Aristophanes wrote comic plays. Of forty or so plays, eleven have survived and represent a genre of comic drama referred to as Old Comedy.

**Aristoteles (Aristotle) of Stageira, Ἀριστοτέλης, Στάγειρα, c. 384–322 BCE.** Aristoteles was a student of Plato and a philosopher. He founded the peripatetic school of philosophy and wrote on many subjects, including aesthetics, biology, economics, ethics, government, linguistics, logic, metaphysics, music, physics, poetry, politics, psychology, rhetoric, theater, and zoology. Aristoteles' works continue to be read and studied.

**Arkhilokhos of Paros, Ἀρχίλοχος Πάρου, c. 680–645 BCE.** The son of Telesikles, an aristocrat, and a slave woman, Arkhilokhos was a mercenary soldier and poet from Paros, a chief center for the worship of Demeter. In association with Demeter and Dionysos there was a tradition of iambic poetry, **ἴαμβοι**, a genre of poetry marked first by invective and scurrility, scatology, and sex, and second by its iambic meter.

**Athenaios of Naukratis, Ἀθήναιος ὁ Nαυκρατίτης, c. 190 CE.** Athenaios was a Greek rhetorician and grammarian. His fifteen-volume *Scholars at Dinner,* **Δειπνοσοφισταί**, on the art of dining, mostly survives. Among other things, the work provides information about Greek literature, quoting from the works of about 700 Greek authors and 2,500 different works. Topics discussed in the volumes include, art, food, music, philology, sex, and wine.

**Damaskios of Damascus, Syria, Δαμάσκιος, c. 458–538 CE.** A Neoplatonist, Damaskios was the last scholar of the School of Athens. He wrote many works of which these survive: commentaries on Plato and *Difficulties and Solutions of First Principles*.

**Demokritos (Democritus) of Abdera**, **Thrace**, **Δημόκριτος, Ἄβδηρα, Θρᾴκη, c.460–370 BCE.** Demokritos was a pre-Socratic philosopher, who proposed that all things were composed of atoms and void. Atoms were the smallest building blocks of the universe and void allowed motion to occur. His theory was later popularized by Epikouros and then expounded by the Roman poet and philosopher Lucretius.

**Demosthenes of Athens, Δημοσθένης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 384–312 BCE.** Statesman and orator, Demosthenes ranks as one of the ten greatest Attic orators. He was also a logographer, writing speeches for others, and a lawyer. He devoted significant energy to opposing the expansion of Makedonia under the rule of Philip II, and then again when Philip's son, Alexander the Great, succeeded to the throne. To avoid capture by the crown of Makedonia, Demosthenes committed suicide.

**Diogenes the Cynic of Sinope**, **Διογένης ὁ Κυνικός, Σινώπη, c. 412–323 BCE.** Diogenes was a philosopher and founder of the Cynic school of philosophy. He believed in moral action rather than in theory. He lived simply and frugally, looking to nature as a guide to living well and authentically, declaring himself a citizen of the world.

**Empedokles of Akragas**, **Ἐμπεδοκλῆς, Ἀκράγας, Σικελία, c.494–434 BCE.** Empedokles was a pre-Socratic philosopher, who contended that the senses were routes to knowledge and that the universe was made up of the following four substances: earth, air, fire, and water.

**Epiktetos of Hierapolis, Phrygia, Ἐπίκτητος, c. 50–135 CE.** Born a slave in Phrygia, Epiktetos was a stoic philosopher, living in Rome until he was banished to Nicopolis, Greece. About c. 68 CE, he gained his freedom and taught philosophy in Rome and then in c. 93 CE he moved to Nicopolis when Rome's Emperor Domitian banished all philosophers from the city.

**Eukleides (Euclid) of Alexandria, Εὐκλείδης c. 300 BCE**. Born in Alexandria, Eukleides developed a conceptual system of geometry from a small set of axioms. His book, *Elements*, has been used to teach geometry up until 150 or so years ago.

**Euripides of Athens, Εὐριπίδης ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c.480–406 BCE.** An innovator who did not gain wide acceptance until after his death, Euripides wrote satyr plays and tragedies. He introduced comedy into tragedy and presented the heroes and heroines of his plays as everyday people. He was a proponent of the new music, which broke with tradition and is a feature of his work that shocked some of his contemporaries. In several plays, (*Helen*, *Ion*, *Iphigeneia in Tauris*), he created tragicomic plots that foreshadowed the so-called New Comedy. He wrote ninety-two plays and had four victories in the Athenian annual dramatic competition and festival in honor of Dionysos. Nineteen of his plays survive, more than any other tragedian.

**Gorgias of Leontini**, **Γοργίας, Λεοντῖνοι, c. 483–376 BCE.** Gorgias was a sophist, who specialized in teaching the art of rhetoric.

**Herakleitos (Heraclitus) of Ephesos**, **Ἡράκλειτος ὁ Ἐφέσιος, c.535–475 BCE**. Herakleitos was a pre-Socratic philosopher who argued that the universe's prime substance was fire, which all things contained within them, that the universe had always existed, and that all is in flux for one can never step into the same river twice.

**Herodotos of Halikarnessos (Halicarnassus), Ἡρόδοτος ὁ Ἁλικαρνησσέος, c. 484–425 BCE.** Herodotos was an ancient Greek historian who hailed from Halikarnessos, a Greek city founded by Dorians, ruled by a monarchy, and part of the Persian empire until conquered by Alexander the Great. Credited with inventing history, Herodotos wrote in a mixed Ionic dialect.

**Hippokrates (Hippocrates) of Kos**, **Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος, c.460–370 BC.** Hippokrates was a physician, who made outstanding contributions to the field of medicine. Founder of the Hippocratic School of Medicine, he established medicine as a discipline and profession. He is credited with writing the Hippocratic Oath, a code of ethics, still in use today.

**Homer, Ὅμηρος, c. 750 BCE.** Homer is conventionally credited with the composition of the epic poems, the *Iliad* and the *Odyssey*, although today many scholars believe that the poems were composed by the different people. Of the many accounts of Homer's life, the most common is that he was a blind bard from Ionia—blindness being associated with excellence in the poetic craft. Of him not much else is known and less is certain.

**Julian, Flavius Claudius Julianus, c. 331 CE.** Julian was Roman emperor from 361 to 363 CE. He was also a philosopher and author of many works written in Greek. About fifteen have survived. Julian rejected Christianity and promoted Neoplatonic Hellenism. For this the Christian Church named him Julian the Apostate. His work, *The Caesars*, was a satire that describes Roman emperors vying for the title of best emperor.

**Kallimakhos of Kyrene, Libya, (Callimachus of Cyrene) Καλλίμαχος, c. 310–240 BCE.** A poet and scholar, Kallimakhos was also a librarian at the famous library of Alexandria. He compiled the *Pinakes*, a catalogue of all Greek literature. He wrote over 800 works of literature, most of which have been lost. His main works are the *Aitia*, six religious hymns, sixty or so epigrams, satirical iambic poems, and *Hekale*, a narrative poem. He is known for writing short, polished poetry. His style influenced many, including the Roman poets, Catullus, Ovid, and Propertius.

**Lucian of Samostoa, c. 125 CE.** Born on the banks of the upper Euphrates River, Lucian was an Assyrian who wrote in ancient Greek but whose native language was probably Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic. What we know of Lucian comes from his own works. He was a satirist and rhetorician. He ridiculed hypocrisy, pedantry, religion, and superstition. Educated in Ionia he lived in Athens for approximately ten years during which time it is surmised that he wrote many of his works. Of the over eighty writings attributed to him, this textbook offers excerpts from *A True Story*, **Ἀληθῆ διηγήματα**; *The Lover of Lies*, **Φιλοψευδής**; and *The Ass*, **ὁ Ὄνος**, though it is not certain whether Lucian is the author of this last work. In his own day Lucian was very popular. Today his writings continue to exert influence.

**Lykourgos (Lycurgus) of Athens Λυκοῦργος ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 390–324 BCE.**  Lykourgos was one of the ten greatest orators of Athens. Most of his works are lost, though we have one speech in its entirety, *Against Leokrates*, and fragments of others.

**Lysias of Syrakousios, Λυσίας ὁ Συρακούσιος, c. 445–380 BCE.** Lysias was an Attic orator and one of the ten greatest of the Attic orators. He was also a logographer, writing speeches for others. His father, Kephalos, moved to Athens from the city of Syrakousios, Sikilia, at the invitation of the Athenian general, Perikles. A resident alien living in Athens, Lysias was nearly killed in 404 when the thirty tyrants ruled Athens. In 403 Lysias wrote a speech attacking Eratosthenes, one of the Thirty Tyrants.

**Menandros (Menander) of Athens**, **Μένανδρος ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 342–290 BCE.**  Menandros was a comic playwright who wrote 108 comedies. Popular in his own day, Menandros took first prize at the dramatic games of the Lenaia festival eight times. Many fragments and one play, almost complete, the *Dyskolos*, have survived the ravages of time.

**Mimnermos of Kolophon or Smyrna, Μίμνερμος ἐκ Κολοφῶνος ἢ Σμύρνας, c. 630–600 BCE.** A Greek elegiac poet, Mimnermos wrote short polished poetry on a variety of themes including age, death, and love. He influenced Kallimakhos and the Alexandrian poets and Properitus and the later Roman poets. Alexandrian scholars collected his poems into two books. Today only paltry scraps remain. As is the case with most of the ancients, what little we know of Mimnermos comes from what we glean from the small bits of his writings that have survived.

**Parmenides of Elea, Παρμενίδης ὁ Ἐλεάτης, c. 500 BCE.** Parmenides was a pre-Socratic philosopher who reasoned that the earth was a sphere and that sense perception was illusory. Thus the only way to truth was through logic.

**Platon (Plato) of Athens, Πλάτων ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 428–424 BCE.** Platon was a student of Sokrates and a philosopher. Best known for his theory of forms and highly influential in his own day, Plato's works continue to be read and studied.

**Praxilla of Sikyon, Πράξιλλα Σικυών c. 451 BCE.** Praxilla was a Greek lyric poet of high renown. Only a few fragments of her work have survived. Antipater of Thessalonike (c. 15 BCE) lists her as one of the nine immortal tongued female poets. Aristophanes parodies her in two of his comedies. The famous sculptor Lysippos (c. 350 BCE) sculpted her in bronze.

**Protagoras of Abdera**, **Thrace**, **Πρωταγόρας, Ἄβδηρα, Θρᾴκη, c.490–420 BCE**. Protagoras was a pre-Socratic philosopher. In his dialogue *Protagoras*, Plato writes that Protagoras invented the professional sophist. Protagoras argued that it did not matter whether the gods existed—he was an agnostic—that there were two sides to every question, each opposed to the other; that the soul was nothing apart from the senses; that everything is true; that all values were relative; and that man is the "measure of all things, of things that are that they are, and of things that are not that they are not." For these views it is said that the Athenians expelled him from their city and burnt his works in the market-place (Diogenes Laertius 9. 51–52).

**Pythagoras of Samos**, **Πῡθαγόρᾱς ὁ Σάμιος**, **c. 570–495 BCE.** Pythagoras was a pre-Socratic philosopher who argued that the soul was immortal and after its death was reborn into another body, either man, animal, or plant, through a process called metempsychosis, **μετεμψύχωσις**. The only end to this cycle was to attain purity of intellect and soul.

**Sappho of Lesbos, Σαπφώ Λέσβου, c. 630–570 BCE.** Born on the island of Lesbos, Sappho is one of the few women's voices we have from antiquity. Regarded in antiquity as the tenth Muse, Sappho and her poetry are widely praised for their lyrical excellence. Time has taken from us most of what Sappho wrote and left to us even less information about her life. She is said to have had three brothers. She writes personal poetry, much of which reflects the love she has for other women.

**Satyros of Kallatis, Σάτυρος Κάλλατις, c. 150 BCE.** Satyros was a philosopher, historian, and biographer whose subjects included kings, philosophers, poets, orators, and statesmen. Fragments of his biography of Euripides were found on a papyrus scroll at Oxyrhynchus, Egypt in the early 1900s.

**Sokrates (Socrates) of Athens**, **Σωκρᾰ́της ὁ Ἀθηναῖος**, **c. 469–399 BCE.** Sokrates was an Athenian stonemason and carver and very poor. He was accused of being a sophist and was loved by some and hated by many of the Athenian people. Early in life Sokrates was intrigued by scientific speculation. He soon grew skeptical of it and turned his attention to inquiring into the right conduct of life.

**Sophokles (Sophocles) of Athens, Σοφοκλῆς ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 497–406 BCE.** Sophokles wrote satyr plays and tragedies. He composed over 120 plays and seven have survived, the most famous being *Oidipous Tyrannos* (*Oidipous Rex*) and *Antigone*. He is said to have won twenty-four of the thirty competitions he entered. Of him it is said that he portrayed people as better than they are in reality.

**Thales of Miletos**, **Θαλῆς ὁ Μιλήσιος, c. 624 BCE.** Thales was a pre-Socratic philosopher who predicted an eclipse of the sun in 585 BCE and argued that the universe's prime element was water.

**Thrasymakhos of Khalkedon**, **Θρασύμαχος, Χαλκηδών, c. 459–400 BCE.** Thrasymakhos was a sophist, who taught that justice is the interest of the stronger, i.e., that "might makes right." He is best known as a character in Plato's *Republic*.

**Xenophanes of Kolophon**, **Ξενοφάνης ὁ Κολοφώνιος, c. 570–478 BCΕ.** Xenophanes was a pre-Socratic philosopher who criticized Hesiod and Homer, arguing that their explanation of divine and human affairs was incorrect. He also criticized the adulation of athletes because wise men were much more important to society than a champion boxer. Finally he asserted that the gods were not anthropomorphic but that there was one god who was moral and motionless, all-knowing and all-powerful.

**Xenophon of Athens, Ξενοφῶν ὁ Ἀθηναῖος, c. 430–454 BCE.** Xenophon was a historian, military leader, and philosopher. A commander of the ten thousand who marched against the Persian king, Artaxerxes II, Xenophon recounts the failed attempt to usurp the Persian throne for Kyros the Younger as well as their successful journey home in his *Anabasis*. Xenophon also wrote the Kyropaidia, which focuses on Kyros the Great. Other works include several Socratic dialogues and his history, the *Hellenika*, which picks up where Thoukydides' history ends.

### **Appendix XV: Top 250 Most Common Words**

**ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν** *good, noble*

**ἄγω, ἄξω, ἤγαγον, ἦχα, ἦγμαι ἤχθην** *do, drive, lead*; **χάριν ἄγω** *I give thanks* **ἀδελφός, ἀδελφοῦ ὁ** *brother*

**ἀδικέω, ἀδικήσω, ἠδίκησα, ἠδίκηκα, ἠδίκημαι, ἠδικήθην** *be unjust, do wrong*

**ἀεί (αἰεί)** *always* 

**Ἀθηναῖος, Ἀθηναίᾱ, Ἀθηναῖον** *Athenian, of* or *from Athens*

**αἱρέω, αἱρήσω, εἷλον (inf. ἑλεῖν), ᾕρηκα, ᾕρημαι, ᾑρέθην** *take, seize, grab, capture*; (mid.) *choose*; **ὁ λόγος αἱρεῖ** *it makes sense, it is reasonable*

**ἀκούω, ἀκούσομαι, ἤκουσα, ἀκήκοα, ἤκουσμαι, ἠκούσθην** *hear, hear of* or *about*, *listen, heed* + gen. or acc. of thing and gen. of person; *have a reputation*; **κακῶς ἀκούειν** *to be spoken ill of*

**ἀληθής, ἀληθές** *true*

**ἀλλά** *but, for*

**------, ἀλλήλων** *one another, each other*

**ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο** *another, other;* **ἄλλος ἄλλο λέγει** *one man says one thing; another says another*; **τῇ ἄλλῃ** *elsewhere*

**ἅμα** (prep.) *at the same time as* + dat.; (adv.) *at the same time, at once*

### **ἀμφότερος, ἀμφοτέρᾱ, ἀμφότερον** *both*

**ἄν** (adverb or particle) indicates something hypothetical, non-factual, or with the indicative something repeated over time

**ἀνά** (prep.) *on, upon, onto* + gen. or dat.; *up to, throughout* + acc.; (adv.) *thereon, thereupon, throughout* 

**ἀνάγκη, ἀνάγκης ἡ** *force, necessity, fate*

**ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός ὁ** *man, husband*

**ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου ἡ ὁ** *human, person*

**ἄξιος, ἀξίᾱ, ἄξιον** *worthy, deserving* + gen.

**ἀξιόω, ἀξιώσω, ἠξίωσα, ἠξίωκα, ἠξίωμαι, ἠξιώθην** *deem worthy, think fit* + '*x*' in acc. + inf.*; expect* + '*x*' in acc. + inf; *deem* '*x*' in acc. *worthy of* '*y*' in gen.

**ἅπας, ἅπασα, ἅπαν** *all, each, every, whole*

**ἀπό** *from, away from* + gen.

**ἀποθνῄσκω (θνῄσκω), ἀποθανέομαι**, **ἀπέθανον, τέθνηκα, ------, ------** *die, perish*

**ἀπόλλυμι (ὄλλυμι), ἀπολέω, ἀπώλεσα** (trans.) or **ἀπωλόμην** (intrans.), **ἀπολώλεκα** (trans.) or **ἀπόλωλα** (intrans.), **------, ------** *kill, lose*; (mid. and intrans.) *die, cease to exist* 

**ἄρα (ῥά)** *and so, therefore, then, in that case*

**ἀρετή, ἀρετῆς ἡ** *virtue, excellence*

**ἀριθμός, ἀριθμοῦ ὁ** *number*

**ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς ἡ** *rule, command; beginning; province* 

**ἄρχω, ἄρξω, ἦρξα, ἦρχα, ἦργμαι, ἤρχθην** *rule, command; begin* + gen.; **ἄρχειν ἀπὸ τῶν πατέρων** *to begin with the fathers*

**αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό** *he, she, it*; *-self* (pred.) *–self*; (att.) *same*; (often + dative) **τὰ αὐτὰ σοὶ ποιέω** *I do the same as you do*; (adv.) **αὐτοῦ** *there*

**ἀφικνέομαι, ἀφίξομαι, ἀφικόμην, ------, ἀφῖγμαι, ------** *arrive, reach, come to*

**βασιλεύς, βασιλῆος (βασιλέως) ὁ** *king, chief*

**βίος, βίου ὁ** *life*

**βούλομαι, βουλήσομαι, ------, ------, βεβούλημαι, ἐβουλήθην** *want, prefer; wish, be willing*

**γάρ** (postpositive) *for*

**γε** (enclitic) *indeed, in fact, merely, at least*

**γένος, γένεος (γένους) τό** *race, kind, sort; birth, origin*

**γῆ, γῆς ἡ** *land, earth*

**γίγνομαι (γίνομαι), γενήσομαι, ἐγενόμην, γέγονα, γεγένημαι, ------** (**ἐγενήθην,**  in late authors) *be, be born, happen, become*; **γεγονός εὖ** *be well-born, be of noble-birth*

**γιγνώσκω, γνώσομαι, ἔγνων, ἔγνωκα, ἔγνωσμαι, ἐγνώσθην** *know, recognize; decide +* inf.

**γράφω, γράψω, ἔγραψα**, **γέγραφα, γέγραμμαι, ἐγράφην** *write* 

**γυνή, γυναικός ἡ** *woman, wife*

**δέ** (post-positive; sometimes indicates change of subject; often answers **μέν**) (conj.) *and, but*; (adv.) *on the other hand*

**δεῖ, δεήσει, ἐδέησε(ν), δεδέηκε(ν), ------, ------** *it is necessary* + inf.; + subj. in gen. or dat. or acc. + inf., **δεῖ ἐλθεῖν** *it is necessary to come*, **δεῖ τῶν στρατιωτῶν ἐλθεῖν** or **δεῖ τοῖς στρατιώταις ἐλθεῖν** or **δεῖ τοὺς στρατιώτας ἐλθεῖν** *it is necessary for the soldiers to come*; + gen. *there is a need of*, **δεῖ τινος** *there is a need of something*; + gen. + inf **δεῖ στρατηγοῦ εὑρεθῆναι** *there is a need of a general to be found*; + gen. and dat. **δεῖ μοί τινος** *there is a need to me of something*

**δείκνῡμι, δείξω (δέξω), ἔδειξα (ἔδεξα), δέδειχα, δέδειγμαι, ἐδείχθην** *show, display*

**δεινός, δεινή, δεινόν** *awesome, fearsome, terrible;* **δεινὸς λέγειν** *clever at speaking*

**δέω, δεήσω, ἐδέησα, δεδέηκα, δεδέημαι, ἐδεήθην** *want, lack, miss, stand in need of, want* + gen*.; long* or *wish for* + gen.; *ask for* 'x' in gen. or acc. *from* 'y' in gen., **τοῦτο** (or **τούτου**) **ὑμῶν δέομαι** *I ask you for this*

**δή** *indeed, in fact, certainly*

**δῆμος, δήμου ὁ** *people*

**διά** *through, throughout* + gen.; *by* + gen.; *on account of* + acc.

**δίδωμι, δώσω, ἔδωκα, δέδωκα, δέδομαι, ἐδόθην** *give; allow* 'x' in dat. or acc. + inf., **ἐμὲ (έμοί) εὐτυχέειν δίδως** *you allow me to prosper*

**δίκαιος, δικαίᾱ, δίκαιον** *just* 

**δίκη, δίκης ἡ** *custom, usage; judgment; order, right; penalty, sentence; lawsuit*

**δοκέω, δόξω, ἔδοξα, ------, δέδογμαι, ἐδόχθην** *seem, think; seem best, think best*  + inf.; **δοκεῖ μόρσιμον τῇ πόλει ἁλίσκεσθαι** *it seems fated for the city to be taken*; **δοκεῖ ἐμοί** and **δοκεῖν ἐμοί** *it seems to me*

**δόξα, δόξης ἡ** *expectation, notion, opinion; reputation*

**δύναμαι, δυνήσομαι, ------, ------, δεδύνημαι, ἐδυνήθην** *be able, be strong enough* + inf.; *be worth*

**δύναμις, δυνάμιος (δυνάμηος, δυνάμεως) ἡ** *might, strength, power; force, army*

**δύο** *two*

**ἐάν** *if* 

**ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῆς, ἑαυτοῦ** *himself, herself, itself*

**ἐγώ, ἐμοῦ** or **μου** *I, me, mine*

**ἐθέλω (θέλω), ἐθελήσω (θελήσω), ἠθέλησα, ἠθέληκα, ------, ------** *wish, be willing*

**εἰ** (proclitic) *if*

**εἰμί, ἔσομαι, ------, ------, ------, ------** *be, be possible*

**εἶμι** *come, go*

**εἷς, μία, ἕν; ἑνός, μιᾶς, ἑνός** *one* 

**εἰς** or **ἐς** (proclitic) *to, into, against* + acc.

**ἐκ** (proclitic) *from, out of, by* + gen.

**ἕκαστος, ἑκάστη, ἕκαστον** *each*

**ἑκάτερος, ἑκατέρᾱ, ἑκάτερον** *each*

**ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο (κεῖνος, κείνη, κεῖνο)** *that, those; he, she, it, they*

**ἐλαύνω, ἐλάω, ἤλασα, ἐλήλακα, ἐλήλαμαι, ἠλάθην or ἠλάσθην** *drive, march*

**Ἕλλην, Ἕλληνος ἡ ὁ** *Greek* 

**ἐμός, ἐμή, ἐμόν** *my* 

**ἐν** (proclitic) *in, on, at, among* + dat.

**ἐναντίος, ἐναντίᾱ, ἐναντίον** *opposite* + gen. or dat.

**ἕνεκα (εἵνεκα)** *on account of, for the sake of* + gen.

**ἐπεί** *after, when, since* 

**ἔπειτα** *thereupon, thereafter, then*

**ἐπί** *on, upon* + gen.; *in the time of* + gen.; *towards* + gen.; *on, at, next to* + dat.; *on, to, against, for* + acc.; **ἐφ᾽ ᾧ** *on condition that*

**ἔργον, ἔργου τό** *deed, task, work; building*; **ἔργον** *in truth, in deed*

**ἔρομαι (εἴρομαι), ἐρήσομαι (εἰρήσομαι), ἠρόμην, -----, -----, -----** *ask, ask* 'x' in acc. *about* 'y' in acc.

**ἔρχομαι, ἐλεύσομαι, ἦλθον (ἐλθεῖν), ἐλήλυθα, ------, ------** *come, go*

**ἕτερος, ἑτέρᾱ, ἕτερον** *other, another*

**ἔτι** *yet, still*

**ἔτος, ἔτεος (ἔτους) τό** *year* 

**εὖ** *well*

**εὐθύς, εὐθεῖα, εὐθύ** *straight, direct*

**εὑρίσκω, εὑρήσω, ηὗρον, ηὕρηκα, ηὕρημαι, ηὑρέθην** *find out, discover*

**ἔχω (imp. εἶχον), ἕξω** or **σχήσω, ἔσχον, ἔσχηκα, -ἔσχημαι, ------** *have, hold*; (+ adv) *be*, **καλῶς ἔχειν be well**; **ὧδε ἔχει** *it is like so; be able* + inf. (often impersonal); *hinder, prevent*, **ἔχω αὐτὸν ταῦτα μὴ ποιεῖν** *I keep him from doing these things*; (mid.) *cleave, cling to* + gen.; (mid.) *be near or border* + gen.; **ἐχόμενόν ἐστι** *there belongs* + gen.

**ζάω (ζῇς, ζῇ), ζήσω, ἔζησα, ἔζηκα, ------, ------** *live, breathe, be full of life*

**Ζεύς, Διός ὁ** *Zeus*

**ἤ** *or, than*

**ἡγέομαι, ἡγήσομαι, ἡγησάμην, ------, ἥγημαι, ἡγήθην** *lead, believe; lead, command* + dat.; *lead* 'x' in gen. *for* 'y' in dat., **ἡγεῖται ἡμῖν χοροῦ** *she leads our dance*; *rule, have dominion* + gen.

**ἤδη** *already, by this time, now*

**ἥκω, ἥξω, ------, ------, ------, ------** *have come, be present*

**ἡμέρᾱ, ἡμέρᾱς ἡ** *day*

**θάλασσα (θάλαττα), θαλάσσης ἡ** *sea*

**θεός, θεοῦ ἡ ὁ** *god, goddess, deity*

**ἴδιος, ἰδίᾱ, ἴδιον** *one's own; one's self*; **ἰδίῃ** *personally, privately, for one's own self*

**ἱερός, ἱερά, ἱερόν** *holy;* (n. in sg.) *temple;* (n. in pl.) *sacrifices*

**ἵημι, -ἥσω, -ἧκα, -εἷκα, -εἷμαι, -εἵθην** *release, hurl, send*; (mid.) *hasten*

**ἵνα** *in order that, so that, where*

**ἱππεύς, ἱππῆος (ἱππέως) ὁ** *knight, cavalryman; horseman, rider* 

**ἵππος, ἵππου ἡ ὁ** *horse; (fem.) cavalry*

**ἴσος, ἴση, ἴσον** *equal, as many as; similar to* + dat.

**ἵστημι, στήσω, ἔστησα** (trans.) or **ἔστην** (intrans.), **ἕστηκα** (intrans.), **ἕσταμαι, ἐστάθην** *stand; make stand, place*

**καθίστημι** (**ἵστημι, στήσω, ἔστησα** (trans.) or **ἔστην** (intrans.), **ἕστηκα** (intrans.), **ἕσταμαι, ἐστάθην**) (trans.) *appoint, establish, put into a state;* (intrans.) *be established, be appointed, enter into a state*

**καί** (conj.) *and*; (adv.) *even, also, merely, indeed*; (after **ὅμοιος, ἴσος, ὁ αὐτός**) *as*

**καιρός, καιροῦ ὁ** *right moment, critical time, opportunity*

**κακός, κακή, κακόν** *bad, evil, cowardly*

**καλέω, καλέω, ἐκάλεσα, κέκληκα, κέκλημαι, ἐκλήθην** *call*

**καλός, καλή, καλόν** *beautiful, noble, good*

**κατά** (prep.) *down from* + gen.; *down toward* + gen.; *under* + gen.; *against* + gen.; *during* + acc.; *throughout* + acc.; *by, according to* + acc.; **καθ' ἅ** *according, just as*; (adv.) *as, just as*

**κεῖμαι, κείσομαι, ------, ------, ------, ------** *lie* 

**κελεύω, κελεύσω, ἔκελευσα, κεκέλευκα, κεκέλευσμαι, ἐκελεύσθην** *bid, order, command; ask; urge, encourage; order* 'x' in dat. or in acc. + inf.; *give the order to*, **κελεύει σώζειν** *he gives the order to save*

**κοινός, κοινή, κοινόν** *shared, common;* **ἐκ τοῦ κοινοῦ** *shared in common;* (n.) **τὸ κοινόν** *the state* 

**κρατέω, κρατήσω, ἐκράτησα, ------, ------, ἐκρατήθην** *be strong, powerful, rule* + gen.

**λαμβάνω, λήψομαι, ἔλαβον, εἴληφα, εἴλημμαι, ἐλήφθην** *take, receive; capture*

**λέγω, ἐρέω** or **λέξω, εἶπον** or **ἔλεξα, εἴρηκα, εἴρημαι** or **λέλεγμαι, ἐλέχθην** or **ἐρρήθην** *say, tell, speak*; (personal) **νόσον λέγεται ἔχειν ὁ Καμβύσης** *Kambyses is said to have an illness*; (impers.) **νόσον λέγεται ἔχειν Καμβύσην** *it is said that Kambyses has an illness*

**λόγος, λόγου ὁ** *word, speech, story; reason, account; value, esteem, talk, conversation;* **τῷ λόγῳ** *for the sake of argument, in word,* i.e., *falsely;* **ἐν λόγῳ** *in the rank of*; **κατὰ λόγον** *according to the value* or *esteem*

**λοιπός, λοιπή, λοιπόν** *left, remaining*

**μάλιστα** *especially, most*; (with numbers) *about*

**μᾶλλον** *more, rather*

**μανθάνω, μαθήσομαι, ἔμαθον, μεμάθηκα, ------, ------** *learn; learn to, learn how to* + inf.; *understand* 

**μάχη, μάχης ἡ** *battle*

**μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα** *big, great*

**μέλλω, μελλήσω, ἐμέλλησα, ------, ------, ------** *be about to, be going to; be likely to* + inf. (fut. inf. in Attic)

**μέν** (post-positive; often looks forward to δέ to create contrast or parallelism) *on the one hand*; **ὁ μέν . . . ὁ δέ** *the one* . . . *the other*; **οἱ μέν . . . οἱ δέ** *some . . . others*

**μέντοι** *indeed, to be sure, however*

**μέρος, μέρεος (μέρους) τό** *share, portion, part; limb; one's turn*

**μέσος, μέση, μέσον** *middle, middle of* + gen.; **ἐς μέσον** *in common, altogether*

**μετά** *with* + gen; *after* + acc.; (adv.) *after, next* 

**μέχρι** *up to, until* + gen.; **μέχρι τούτου** *meanwhile*

**μή** (mostly found in hypothetical contexts) *no, not, lest*

**μηδέ** (mostly found in hypothetical contexts) *and . . . not*

**μηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν; μηδένος, μηδεμιᾶς, μηδένος** (mostly found in hypothetical contexts) *no one, nothing*

**μήν, μηνός ὁ** *month*; (adv.) *truly, surely*

**μήτε** (mostly found in hypothetical contexts) *neither*, **μήτε . . . μήτε** *neither . . . nor*

**μήτηρ, μητέρος (μητρός) ἡ** *mother*

**μικρός, μικρά, μικρόν** *small, little, short*

**μόνος, μόνη, μόνον** *only, sole, alone, solitary; one*

**νηῦς (ναῦς), νεός (νεώς) ἡ** *ship*

**νέος, νέᾱ, νέον** *new, fresh, young; strange, unexpected* 

**νομίζω, νομιέω, ἐνόμισα, νενόμικα, νενόμισμαι, ἐνομίσθην** *believe, think, have the custom of, hold as custom*

**νόμος, νόμου ὁ** *law, custom*

**νῦν** *now*

**ὁ, ἡ, τό** (proclitic, **ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, αἱ**) *the; my, your, his, her; our, your, their*; (used with abstract nouns, with names of famous or important people, and to generalize), **οἱ ἄνθρωποι**, *people*

**ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε** *he, she, it; this, these*; *the following*; **τῇδε** *here, thus, in the following way*

**οἶδα (**inf. **εἰδέναι), εἴσομαι, ------, ------, ------, ------** *know, think; know how to* + inf.

**οἴομαι** or **οἶμαι, οἰήσομαι, ᾠσάμην, ------, ------, ᾠήθην** *think, suppose, believe*

**οἷος, οἵᾱ, οἷον** *such, such a kind*; **οἷός τέ εἰμι** *I am able, I am of such a kind to* + inf.; **οἷον** or **οἷα** *how, like, as, because*

**ὀλίγος, ὀλίγη, ὀλίγον** *few, little, small*

**ὅλος, ὅλη, ὅλον** *whole, entire*

**ὅμοιος, ὁμοίᾱ, ὅμοιον** *like, resembling* + dat.

**ὁμολογέω, ὁμολογήσω, ὡμολόγησα, ὡμολόγηκα, ὡμολόγημαι, ὡμολογήθην** *speak together; agree; admit*

**ὄνομα, ὀνόματος τό** *name*

**ὅπως** *so that, in order that; how; whenever* 

**ὁράω (**imp. **ἑώραον), ὄψομαι, εἶδον (**inf. **ἰδεῖν), ἑόρακα** or **ἑώρακα, ἑώραμαι** or **ὦμμαι, ὤφθην** *see*

**ὀρθός, ὀρθή, ὀρθόν** *straight, correct, proper*

**ὅς, ἥ, ὅ** *who, whose, whom; which, that;* **ᾗ** *by which way, just as;* **ἐν ᾧ** *while;* **ἐς ὅ** *until*

**ὅσος, ὅση, ὅσον** *so many, as many as*; **ὅσῳ** *in so far as; to the degree that*; **ὅσον** *as far as*; **ἐπ᾽ ὅσον** *how far, to how great an extent*

**ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅ τι** *whoever, whatever*

**ὅταν (ὅτε + ἄν)** *whenever* 

**ὅτε** *when*

**ὅτι** *that, because*

**οὐ, οὐκ, οὐχ** (proclitic; mostly found in factual contexts; use **οὐκ** if the word that comes after starts with a smooth breathing; use **οὐχ** if the word that comes after starts with a rough breathing; if the word starts with a consonant, use **οὐ**) *no, not*

**οὐδέ** (mostly found in factual contexts) *and not, but not, not even*

**οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν; οὐδένος, οὐδεμιᾶς, οὐδένος** (mostly found in factual contexts) *no one, nothing*

**οὖν** *then, therefore; really, certainly*

**οὔτε** (mostly found in factual contexts) *and not*; *neither*; **οὔτε . . . οὔτε** *neither . . . nor*

**οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο** *he, she, it; this, these*; **ταύτῃ** *here, there, where, in this way*  **οὕτως (οὕτω)** *in this way, such, so*

**πάθος, πάθεος (πάθους) τό** *suffering; experience; passion; emotion*

**παῖς, παιδός ἡ ὁ** *child*

**πάλιν** *back*

**πάνυ** *perfectly, verily, by all means*

**παρά** *from* + gen.; *beside* + dat.; *to, toward* + acc.; *contrary to* + acc.

**πάρειμι** *be near, be present*; (imper.) *be possible*

**πάρειμι** *go in, enter; pass by*

**παρέχω (ἔχω, ἕξω** or **σχήσω, ἔσχον, ἔσχηκα, -ἔσχημαι, ------)** *furnish, hand over; supply; cause; allow, grant; be allowed*, **παρέχει** *it is allowed*

**πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν** *all, each, every, whole*

**πάσχω, πείσομαι, ἔπαθον, πέπονθα, ------, ------** *suffer, have done to one*

**πατήρ, πατρός ὁ** *father*

**πείθω, πείσω, ἔπεισα, πέπεικα, πέπεισμαι, ἑπείσθην** *persuade*; (mid. or pass.) *listen to, obey* + dat. or gen.

**πέμπω, πέμψω, ἔπεμψα, πέπομφα, πέπεμμαι, ἐπέμφθην** *send*

**περί** *about, concerning* + gen; *around, concerning* + dat.; *around, concerning* + acc.

**πλεῖστος, πλείστη, πλεῖστον** *most, greatest, largest*

**πλῆθος, πλήθεος (πλήθους) τό** *great number, multitude; sum*

**ποιέω, ποιήσω, ἐποίησα, πεποίηκα, πεποίημαι, ἐποιήθην** *do, make, cause;*  (mid.) *consider***, περὶ πολλοῦ ποιεῖσθαι** *to consider important*; **ἐν ἐλαφρῷ ποιεῖν** *to make light of*; **κακὰ ποιεῖν αὐτόν** *to do harm to him*; **οὐδένα λόγον ποιεῖν** *to consider* 'x' in gen. *of no account*; *make a poem, compose*

**πολέμιος, πολεμίᾱ, πολέμιον** *hostile* 

**πόλεμος, πολέμου ὁ** *war*

**πόλις, πόλιος (πόληος, πόλεως) ἡ** *city* 

**πολύς, πολλή, πολύ** *much, many*

**ποταμός, ποταμοῦ ὁ** *river*

**ποτε** (enclitic) *at some time, once, ever*

**πρᾶγμα, πράγματος τό** *matter, thing, affair; problem*

**πράττω (πράσσω, πρήσσω), πράξω, ἔρπαξα, πέπρᾱχα or πέπρᾱγα, πέπρᾱγμαι, ἐπράχθην** *do, make, fare; pass through; exact payment of* 'x' in acc. *from* 'y' in acc.; **πολλὰ πράττειν** *to be a busybody, to make trouble*; **κακῶς πράττειν** *to fare badly, fail, suffer;*

**πρίν** (conj.) *before*, **πρὶν (ἢ) αὐτοὺς πέμψαι ταῦτα** *before they sent these things*

**πρό** (prep.) *before, in front of* + gen; *on behalf of* + gen.

**πρός** (prep.) *facing* + gen.; *from* + gen.; *in the eyes of* + gen.; *by* + gen.; *at, near* + dat.; *in addition* + dat.; *towards* + acc.; *against* + acc.; *in regard to* + acc.; (adv.) *additionally, in addition*

**πρότερος, προτέρᾱ, πρότερον** *prior, before, sooner*

**πρῶτος, πρώτη, πρῶτον** *first, for the present, just now*

**πῶς** *how* 

**σκοπέω, σκοπήσω, ἐσκόπησα, ------, ἐσκόπημαι or ἔσκεμμαι, ------** *look at; examine; consider, contemplate*

**σός, σή, σόν** *your* 

**στρατηγός, στρατηγοῦ ὁ** *general*

**σύ, σοῦ** or **σου** *you, you, yours*

**συμβαίνω (βαίνω, βήσομαι, ἔβην, βέβηκα, βέβαμαι, ἐβάθην)** *stand with feet together; come together; come to an agreement, come to terms; meet* + dat.; (impers.) *come to pass, happen*

**σύν (ξύν)** *with, with help of* + dat.

**σφεῖς, σφέα; σφέων (σφῶν), σφέων (σφῶν)** *they, them, theirs*

**σῶμα, σώματος τό** *body*

**ταχύς, ταχεῖα, ταχύ** *swift* 

**τε** (enclitic and postpositive) *and*; **τε . . . τε** *both . . . and*

**τεῖχος, τείχεος (τείχους) τό** *wall*; (pl.) *stronghold* 

**τέλος, τέλεος (τέλους) τό** *end, boundary; power; office;* (acc.) *finally* 

**τίθημι, θήσω, ἔθηκα, τέθηκα, τέθειμαι, ἐτέθην** *put, place; make, cause*

**τις, τι** (pronoun) *anyone, anything; someone, something;* (adjective) *some, any, a, a certain* 

**τίς, τί** (adjective or pronoun) *who, what, which, why*

**τοίνυν** *then, therefore*

**τοιοῦτος, τοιαύτη, τοιοῦτο** *of such a kind* or *sort*

**τόπος, τόπου ὁ** *place, spot*

**τοσοῦτος, τοσαύτη, τοσοῦτο** *so much, so many*

**τότε** *at that time, then*

**τρεῖς, οἱ, αἱ; τρία τά** *three* 

**τρόπος, τρόπου ὁ** *way, manner, turn;* (pl.) *character*

**τυγχάνω, τεύξομαι, ἔτυχον, τετύχηκα, ------, ------** *happen* + suppl. participle, **τυγχάνει βαλών** *he happens to strike*; *meet* + gen.; *obtain* + gen.; *hit the mark, strike* + gen.; *succeed* 

**υἱός, υἱοῦ ὁ** *son, child*

**ὑπάρχω (ἄρχω, ἄρξω, ἦρξα, ἦρχα, ἦργμαι, ἤρχθην)** *be; be sufficient; begin* + gen.; (impers.) *be allowed, be possible*

**ὑπέρ** *above, over* + gen.; *on behalf of* + gen*.*; *over, above, beyond* + acc.

**ὑπό** *by* + gen.; *under +* gen., dat., or acc.; *subject to* + dat.; *during* + acc.

**ὕστερος, ὑστέρᾱ, ὕστερον** *after, later*

**φαίνω, φανέω, ἔφηνα, πέφαγκα** or **πέφηνα, πέφασμαι, ἐφάνθην** or **ἐφάνην** *show, reveal*; (pass.) *come to light, appear*

**φέρω, οἴσω, ἤνεγκα** or **ἤνεγκον, ἐνήνοχα, ἐνήνεγμαι, ἠνέχθην** *bring, bear, carry; endure;* (mid.) *win*; **τὸ δίκαιον φέρει** *as justice brings about, as is just*

**φεύγω, φεύξομαι, ἔφυγον, πέφευγα, ------, ------** *flee; be banished; be in exile; be a defendant*

**φημί, φήσω, ἔφησα, ------, ------, ------** *say, affirm, assert*

**φίλος, φίλη, φίλον** *friendly, kind, well-disposed* + dat.; (n.) *friend*

**φύσις, φύσιος (φύσηος, φύσεως) ἡ** *nature* 

**χείρ, χειρός ἡ (**dat pl. **χερσίν)** *hand; force, army*

**χράομαι, χρήσομαι, ἐχρησάμην, ------, κέχρημαι, ἐχρήσθην** *use, employ, experience* + dat.

**χρή (**inf. **χρῆναι < χρὴ + εἶναι;** imp. **ἐχρῆν** or **χρῆν < χρη + ἦν;** fut. **χρήσει), χρῆσται (χρὴ + ἔσται)** *it is necessary* + inf.

**χρῆμα, χρήματος τό** *thing;* (pl.) *goods, money, property*

**χρόνος, χρόνου ὁ** *time*

**χώρᾱ, χώρᾱς ἡ** *land, country*

**ψυχή, ψυχῆς ἡ** *life, soul, spirit*

**ὦ** (precedes a noun, marks for the vocative case, often not translated) *oh*

**ὡς** (proclitic) (conj.) *as, how, when*; (conj. + indicative) *since, because*; (conj. + optative or subjunctive) *in order that*; (conj. + indirect statement) *that*; (adv.) *so, thus*; (adv. + superlative) *as* "x" *as possible*; (adv. + numbers) *about, nearly*

**ὥσπερ** *as, as if*

**ὥστε** *and so, such that, with the result that*

# **Answer Key**

# **Module 3 Answers to Practice Accenting Verbs of Three Syllables or More**


# **Module 4 Answers to Practice Identifying Adverbs**

Adverbs are bolded and what each modifies is underlined.

"Open your eyes, Clevinger. It does **not** make a damned bit of difference who wins the war to someone who's dead."

Clevinger sat for a moment as though he'd been slapped. "Congratulations!" he exclaimed **bitterly**, the thinnest milk-white line enclosing his lips **tightly** in a bloodless, squeezing grind. "I can

**not** think of another attitude that could be depended upon to give greater comfort to the enemy."

"The enemy," retorted Yossarian with weighted precision, "is anybody who's going to get you killed, no matter which side he's on, and that includes Colonel Cathcart. And do **not** you forget that, because the **longer** you remember it, the **longer** you might live."

### **Module 4 Answers to Practice Translating Adverbs**

"Every time another White Halfoat was born," he continued, "the stock market turned bullish. **Soon** whole drilling crews were following us around with all their equipment **just** to get the jump on each other. Companies began to merge **just** so they could cut down on the number of people they had to assign to us. But the crowd in back of us kept growing. We never got a good night's sleep. When we stopped, they stopped. When we moved, they moved, chuckwagons, bulldozers, derricks, generators. We were a walking business boom, and we began to receive invitations from some of the best hotels **just** for the amount of business we would drag into town with us. Some of those invitations were **mighty** generous, but we could**n't** accept any because we were Indians and all the best hotels that were inviting us would**n't** accept Indians **as** guests. Racial prejudice is a terrible thing, Yossarian. It **really** is.

"**Then**, Yossarian, it **finally** happened—the beginning of the end. They began to follow us around from in front. They would try to guess where we were going to stop next and would begin drilling before we even got there, so we could**n't** stop. As soon as we'd begin to unroll our blankets, they would kick us off. They had confidence in us. They wouldn't **even** wait to strike oil before they kicked us off. We were **so** tired we almost did**n't** care the day our time ran out. One morning we found ourselves **completely** surrounded by oilmen waiting for us to come their way so they could kick us off. Everywhere you looked there was an oilman on a ridge, waiting there **like** Indians getting ready to attack. It was the end. We could**n't** stay where we were because we had **just** been kicked off. And there was no place left for us to go. Only the Army saved me. Luckily, the war broke out just in the nick of time, and a draft board picked me right up out of the middle and put me down safely in Lowery Field, Colorado. I was the only survivor."

# **Module 5 Answers to Practice Indentifying Conjunctions**

Coordinating conjunctions are underlined and subordinating conjunctions are in bold.

Each morning **when** they came around, three brisk and serious men with efficient mouths and inefficient eyes, they were accompanied by brisk and serious Nurse Duckett, one of the ward nurses who didn't like Yossarian. They read the chart at the foot of the bed and asked impatiently about the pain. They seemed irritated **when** he told them it was exactly the same.

Nurse Duckett made a note to give Yossarian another pill, and the four of them moved along to the next bed. None of the nurses liked Yossarian. Actually, **although** the pain in his liver had gone away, Yossarian didn't say anything and the doctors never suspected.

### **Module 5 Answers to Practice with Conjunctions**

I **once** went to Thessaly. I had some family business there with a man from that region. My horse carried me **and** my possessions **and** one slave attended me. I was travelling the dirt road **when** along came some travellers headed for Hypata, a city of Thessaly **and** their hometown. We shared bread **as** we approached the end of our journey and the city. I asked them **if** they knew about a man living in Hypata. His name was Hipparkhos **and** I carried for him a letter from home, requesting a stay at his house. They replied **that** they knew Hipparkhos, **where** in the city he lived, **that** he had sufficient silver, and **that** he kept only one slave and a wife, **since** money was his true love.

**As** we neared the city, we saw an orchard **and** on the grounds a small but tolerable cottage **where** Hipparkhos lived. Bidding me farewell my companions left. I approached the door and knocked. After a long wait a woman answered, stepping outside.

# **Module 5 Answers to Practice Accenting Verbs of Two Syllables or More**

1. λαμβάνει, λήψει, ἔλαβε, ἐλάμβανε, ἐλήφθη, λήψεσθε, λαμβάνεται, λαμβάνεσθαι


# **Module 6 Answers to Practice Writing in Greek**


# **Module 7 Answers to Practice Parsing in English**


(preposition not present in Greek) silver (genitive of dependence) to (preposition not present in Greek) him (dative, indirect object).


# **Module 7 Answers to Create a Linked Story, Presidents 1–12**

### **Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Adams, Jackson, Van Buren, Harrison, Tyler, Polk, Taylor**

**You** are standing at your sink washing a tin. Out of the tin grows a big adam's apple. You grab the apple out of the tin and hand it to a chef and her son. They take the apple and use it to make medicine. You take the medicine from them and give it to Marilyn Monroe who stands there watching. Marilyn takes the medicine and she too grows a huge adam's apple. Michael Jackson is moon walking as he watches horrified by the huge adam's apple growing from Marilyn Monroe's neck. Michael Jackson runs screaming from the room and gets into a van filled with cases of beer. A hairy son drives away with the beer and Michael Jackson. The hairy son is not a good driver. He runs into a tiler who is putting tiles decorated with polka dots onto the wall of a building. A tailor watches the tiler work and takes the polka dots from the tiles so that he can use them for a dress he is making for Marilyn Monroe.

### **Module 8 Answers to Practice Picking out Prepositions**

Circumambulate the city **of** a dreamy Sabbath afternoon. Go **from** Corlears Hook **to** Coenties Slip, and **from** thence, **by** Whitehall, northward. What do you see?—Posted like silent sentinels all **around** the town, stand thousands **upon** thousands **of** mortal men fixed **in** ocean reveries. Some leaning **against** the spiles; some seated **upon** the pier-heads; some looking **over** the bulwarks **of** ships **from** China; some high aloft **in** the rigging, as if striving to get a still better seaward peep. But these are all landsmen; **of** week days pent up **in** lath and plaster—tied **to** counters, nailed **to** benches, clinched **to** desks. How then is this? Are the green fields gone? What do they here?

### **Module 8 Answers to Practice Identifying Prepositions**

Μασσαγέται δὲ ἐσθῆτά τε ὁμοίην τῇ Σκυθικῇ φορέουσι καὶ δίαιταν ἔχουσι, ἱππόται δὲ εἰσὶ καὶ ἄνιπποι—ἀμφοτέρων γὰρ μετέχουσι καὶ τοξόται τε καὶ αἰχμοφόροι, σαγάρις νομίζοντες ἔχειν. χρυσῷ δὲ καὶ χαλκῷ τὰ πάντα χρέωνται· ὅσα μὲν γὰρ **ἐς** αἰχμὰς καὶ ἄρδις καὶ σαγάρις, χαλκῷ τὰ πάντα χρέωνται, ὅσα δὲ **περὶ** κεφαλὴν καὶ ζωστῆρας καὶ μασχαλιστῆρας, χρυσῷ κοσμέονται. [2] ὣς δ᾽ αὕτως τῶν ἵππων τὰ μὲν **περὶ** τὰ στέρνα χαλκέους θώρηκας περιβάλλουσι, τὰ δὲ **περὶ** τοὺς χαλινοὺς καὶ στόμια καὶ φάλαρα χρυσῷ. σιδήρῳ δὲ οὐδ᾽ ἀργύρῳ χρέωνται οὐδέν· οὐδὲ γὰρ οὐδέ σφι ἐστὶ **ἐν** τῇ χωρῇ, ὁ δὲ χρυσὸς καὶ ὁ χαλκὸς ἄπλετος.

### **Module 8 Answers to Practice Choosing the Preposition**

**Concerning** customs all people think this way and it is possible to prove it is so by many examples and also **in** the following way. **During** his rule Dareios called some Greeks who were present and asked them **at** what price they would be willing to eat their dead fathers. They replied that they would do this **at** no price. **After** this Dareios called the Kallatians from India who eat their dead and while the Greeks watched and understood what was said **through**  an interpreter, asked **at** what price they would agree to burn with fire their dead fathers. They yelled loudly and bid him to watch his tongue. So it is with customs and I think Pindar's poem correctly says that custom is the king of everything.


ὡς δὲ οὕτω νενομίκασι τὰ **περὶ τοὺς νόμους** πάντες ἄνθρωποι, πολλοῖσί τε καὶ ἄλλοισι τεκμηρίοισι πάρεστι σταθμώσασθαι, ἐν δὲ δὴ καὶ τῷδε. [3] Δαρεῖος **ἐπὶ τῆς ἑωυτοῦ ἀρχῆς**, καλέσας Ἑλλήνων τοὺς παρεόντας, εἴρετο **ἐπὶ κόσῳ ἂν χρήματι** βουλοίατο τοὺς πατέρας ἀποθνήσκοντας κατασιτέεσθαι. οἱ δὲ **ἐπ᾽ οὐδενὶ** ἔφασαν ἔρδειν ἂν τοῦτο. [4] Δαρεῖος δὲ **μετὰ ταῦτα**, καλέσας Ἰνδῶν τοὺς καλεομένους

Καλλατίας, οἳ τοὺς γονέας κατεσθίουσι, εἴρετο, παρεόντων τῶν Ἑλλήνων καὶ **δι᾽ ἑρμηνέος** μανθανόντων τὰ λεγόμενα, **ἐπὶ τίνι χρήματι** δεξαίατ᾽ ἂν τελευτῶντας τοὺς πατέρας κατακαίειν πυρί. οἱ δέ, ἀμβώσαντες μέγα, εὐφημέειν μιν ἐκέλευον. οὕτω μέν νυν ταῦτα νενόμισται, καὶ ὀρθῶς μοι δοκέει Πίνδαρος ποιῆσαι, νόμον πάντων βασιλέα φήσας εἶναι.

# **Module 8 Answers to Practice Translating Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Adverbs**

#### **Paragraph I**

It was a humorously perilous business for both of us. **For, before** we proceed further, it must be said **that** the monkey-rope was fast **at** both ends; fast to Queequeg's broad canvas belt, and fast to my narrow leather one. **So that** for better or for worse, we two, **for the time**, were wedded; and should poor Queequeg sink to rise no more, **then both** usage **and** honor demanded, **that** instead of cutting the cord, it should drag me down in his wake. **So, then,** an elongated Siamese ligature united us. Queequeg was my own inseparable twin brother; nor could I any way get rid of the dangerous liabilities which the hempen bond entailed.

**So** strongly and metaphysically did I conceive of my situation **then, that while** earnestly watching his motions, I seemed distinctly to perceive **that** my own individuality was **now** merged in a joint stock company of two; **that** my free will had received a mortal wound; **and that** another's mistake **or** misfortune might plunge innocent me **into** unmerited disaster and death.

#### **Paragraph II**

Athletes **and** those seeking physical fitness pay attention to health **and** exercise. They **also** contend **that** well-timed relaxation is a vital part of training. Students **too** I think profit **from** rest **after** reading serious works and **consequently** return **to** their studies invigorated. This rest works best **if** they spend time **with** books which provide contemplation **and** inspiration **as well as** wit, charm, **and** attraction, just the sort of restful thought I think this work provides. I note **not** only the novelty of the content and the charm of a compelling story **but also** the witty allusions **to** the ancient classics, filled with legends and monsters, written **by** poets, historians, and philosophers.

# **Module 9 Answers to Practice with Verbs in English**

**I hope:** first person singular present indicative active, stating a fact. **Hope** is transitive and is often followed by a clause initiated by the conjunction **that**.

**that I should live:** first person singular present modal active, stating a possibility. **Live** is intransitive.

**to see:** infinitive unmarked for person and number, stating a possibility. **To see** is transitive and is a complementary infinitive, completing the meaning of the verb **live**.

**every man should know:** third-person singular present modal active, stating a possibility. The modal mood expresses hypotheticals, as do the subjunctive and optative moods in Greek. **Know** is transitive and is often followed by a clause initiated by the conjunction **that**. Here the **that** is elided.

**he is free:** third-person singular present indicative active. It is the clause that functions as the direct object of **know**. **Is** is a linking verb, connecting the subject **he** with the adjective **free**.

**prayers and suffrage make our heart:** third plural present indicative active, stating a fact.

**to be this sad:** infinitive, dependent on the verb **make**. **To be** is a linking verb connecting the infinitive's subject **heart** with the adjective **sad**.

**I got my duty rock and roll:** first-person singular present indicative active, stating a fact.

**now everybody has got:** third-person singular, present modal active, stating an obligation.

**to be free:** infinitive unmarked for person and number. The infinitive **to be** is a linking verb combining **everybody** with **free** and is complementary, completing the meaning of the verb **has got**.

**Let us get rid:** first-person plural present imperative active, exhorting us to act.

**and (let us) bring our government:** first-person plural, present imperative active, exhorting us to act.

**it may seem very hard:** third-person singular, present modal active, expressing possibility. **May** is a helping verb. **Seem** is a linking verb, combining **it** with **hard**. **It** is the third person impersonal subject of the verb **may seem**.

**hard to do:** infinitive unmarked for person and number. The infinitive **to do** is transitive and the direct object has already been stated above as **get rid** and **bring**. **To do** is an epexegetical infinitive explaining the adjective **hard**.

**just open your mind:** second-person singular, present imperative active, asking the listener to imagine a better future. **Open** is a transitive verb.

**let love:** second-person singular, present imperative active, asking the listener to imagine a better future. **Let** is a transitive verb and the direct object is **love** and the infinitive **(to) come**.

**come through: come** is an infinitive dependent on the verb **let.** The **to** has been omitted.

**you hear me, hear my plea:** second-person singular, present indicative active, stating a fact. **Hear** is a transitive verb. The direct objects are **me** and **plea**.

**everybody's gotta be free:** third-person singular, present modal active, stating an obligation.

**gotta be free:** infinitive unmarked for person and number. The infinitive **to be** is a linking verb combining **everybody** with **free** and is complementary, completing the meaning of the verb **has got**.

**we did our thing:** first-person plural, pesent indicative active, stating a fact. **Did** is a transitive verb and its direct object is **thing**.

**we paid our dues:** first-person plural, pesent indicative active, stating a fact. **Paid** is a transitive verb and its direct object is **dues**.

**let's get rid of:** first-person plural present imperative active, exhorting us to act. **These freedom blues** is the object of get rid of.

# **Module 9 Answers to Practice Translating** εἰμί


10.They are not inexperienced in the art.

# **Module 9 Answers to Practice Translating** δίδωμι


# **Module 9 Answers to Practice Translating** τίθημι


# **Module 9 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek Sentences**

**ἐγὼ μὲν ἔρομαι εἰ ἔνδον ἐστέ.** *I ask if you are within.*

**ἐγώ:** nominative, subject of ἔρομαι **μέν:** adverb, modifying ἔρομαι **ἔρομαι:** first-person singular present indicative middle or passive **εἰ:** subordinating conjunction

**ἔνδον:** adverb modifying ἐστέ **ἐστέ:** second-person plural present indicative active

**δίκην αὐτῇ καὶ αὐτῷ δίδως.** *You pay the penalty to her and to him.*

**δίκην:** accusative, direct object of δίδως **αὐτῇ:** dative, indirect object of δίδως **καί:** coordinating conjunction **αὐτῷ:** dative, indirect object of δίδως **δίδως:** second-person singular, present indicative active

# **Module 10 Answers to Practice Translating** ἔχω


# **Module 10 Answers to Practice Translating** ποιέω


# **Module 10 Answers to Practice Translating** ἔρχομαι


# **Module 10 Answers to Practice Translating** φημί


# **Module 10 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek Sentences**

**καὶ φόβος αὐτὸν ἔχει καὶ διὰ ταῦτα φεύγει.** *Fear holds him and so he flees.*

**καί:** coordinating conjunction **φόβος:** nominative, subject of ἔχει **αὐτόν:** accusative, direct object of ἔχει **ἔχει:** third-person singular, present indicative active **καί:** coordinating conjunction **διά:** preposition **ταῦτα:** accusative object of διά **φεύγει:** third-person singular, present indicative active

**ὁράω γὰρ ὅτι οὐκ ἔρχῃ πρὸς καιρόν.** *For I see that you do not come at a good time.*

**ὁράω:** first-person singular, present indicative active **γάρ:** postpositive, conjunction **ὅτι:** subordinating conjunction **οὐκ:** adverb modifying ἔρχῃ **ἔρχῃ:** second-person singular, present indicative middle or passive **πρός:** preposition **καιρόν:** accusative object of preposition

### **Module 11 Answers to Practice with Persistent Accent**


### **Module 11 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Apollo:** Zeus kills my son, Asklepios, and throws fire into his chest. For I anger him when I kill the makers of Zeus' fire, the Kyklopes. My father forces me to be a slave to a mortal man as payment for these things. I go to the land and I serve as cowherd to a stranger and I save his house. I am devout and I meet a devout man, Pheres' son, Admetos. I save him from dying and I trick the fates. The goddesses make a promise to me and say that Admetos immediately escapes Hades and gives in exchange another's corpse to those below. He tests everyone and goes through his loved ones, father and mother. He finds no one, except his wife. His mother gives him birth but does not wish to die for him. His wife is willing to look no longer upon the daylight; at home he holds her in his hands and she barely breathes.

# **Module 11 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek Sentences**

**ὁ Ζεὺς κτείνει παῖδα τὸν ἐμόν, Ἀσκληπιόν, καὶ στέρνοις ἐμβάλλει φλόγα.** *Zeus kills my son, Asklepios, and throws fire into his chest.*

**ὁ:** nominative adjective, agrees in gender, case, and number with Ζεύς **Ζεύς:** nominative, subject of κτείνει **κτείνει:** third-person singular, present indicative active **παῖδα:** accusative, direct object of κτείνει **τόν:** accusative adjective, agrees in gender, case, and number with παῖδα **ἐμόν:** accusative adjective, agrees in gender, case, and number with παῖδα **Ἀσκληπιόν:** accusative noun in apposition with παῖδα **καί:** coordinating conjunction **στέρνοις:** dative, object of the prefix ἐν- of ἐμβάλλει **ἐμβάλλει:** third-person singular, present indicative active **φλόγα:** accusative, direct object of ἐμβάλλει

# **Module 12 Answers to Practice Translating Substantive Adjectives**


10.The things pertaining to war.

11.To the men in the sea.

12.Contrary to the things of virtue.

13.Through the necessity of the things of war.

14.According to those in the street.

15.In comparison with the things in the beginning of time.

16.Subject to the law of those in charge.

17.The one . . . the other.

18.Some . . . others.

### **Module 12 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Iphigeneia:** The son of Tantalos goes to Pisa and with swift horses marries the daughter of Oinomaos. The children of Atreus are Menelaos and Agamemnon. From him and the daughter of Tyndareos, I, Iphigeneia, am born. Because of Helen my father sacrifices me to Artemis at the famous glens of Aulis. For here lord Agamemnon gathers a Greek force of a thousand ships and wishes to seize the prize of Ilium. The son of Atreus wishes to chase down the marriage of Helen and bring favor to Menelaos. Although he wishes to release his ships from land, the lord of the campaign, Agamemnon, is unable. He experiences a difficult inability to sail and so goes for sacrifices and Kalkhas says to him these things. Kalkhas says that it is necessary for my father to sacrifice me, his daughter Iphigeneia, to Artemis and for her to accept the payment. Kalkhas says to him that he promised to sacrifice the most beautiful child to the light-bringing goddess. And Klytaimestra gives birth to the child, Iphigeneia. By the most beautiful Kalkhas is referring to me and so it is necessary for my father to sacrifice me. By Odysseus' cunning he takes me from my mother for marriage to Akhilleus.

# **Module 12 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek Sentences**

**δεινῆς δ' ἀπλοίας τυγχάνει ὥστε εἰς ἔμπυρ' ἔρχεται καὶ αὐτῷ λέγει ὁ Κάλχας ταῦτα.** *He experiences a difficult inability to sail and so goes for sacrifices and Kalkhas says to him these things.*

**δεινῆς:** genitive adjective, agrees in gender, case, and number with ἀπλοίας.

**δέ:** coordinating conjunction **ἀπλοίας:** genitive, direct object of the verb τυγχάνει **τυγχάνει:** third person singular, present indicative active **ὥστε:** subordinating conjunction **εἰς:** preposition **ἔμπυρα:** accusative, object of εἰς **ἔρχεται:** third-person singular, present indicative middle or passive **καί:** coordinating conjunction **αὐτῷ:** dative, indirect object with λέγει **λέγει:** third person singular, present indicative active **ὁ:** nominative adjective, agrees in gender, case, and number with Κάλχας **Κάλχας:** nominative, subject of λέγει **ταῦτα:** accusative, object of λέγει

# **Module 13 Answers to Practice Understanding Adjective and Noun Agreement**


# **Module 13 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Helen**: The story is that Zeus takes the form of a swan and flies to Leda, my mother of Helen. My name is Helen and I tell the Greeks what evils I suffer. On account of beauty three goddesses come to Mt. Ida, Hera, Kypris, and the maiden. The goddesses wish to decide the trial of beauty. Kypris wins and gives my beauty to Alexandros. Paris departs Mt. Ida and arrives in Sparta and wishes to have my marriage-bed. Hera complains because she does not defeat the goddesses and she fills with air my marriage to Alexandros. Hera does not give me but she makes an image similar to me and she puts it together from the sky. The will of Zeus brings war to the land of the Greeks and to the Phrygians. Zeus wishes to lighten mother earth of the great throng of mortals and to make Akhilleus famous. Hermes takes me and hides me in a cloud and places me in the house of Proteus.

# **Module 13 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek Sentences**

**τὰ δὲ Διὸς βουλεύματα πόλεμον εἰσφέρει Ἑλλήνων χθονί καἰ Φρυξί.** *The will of Zeus brings war to the land of the Greeks and to the Phrygians.*

**τά:** nominative adjective, agrees in gender, case, and number with βουλεύματα **δέ:** coordinating conjunction **Διός:** genitive, possesses βουλεύματα **βουλεύματα:** nominative, subject of εἰσφέρει **πόλεμον:** accusative, direct object of εἰσφέρει **εἰσφέρει:** third-person singular, present indicative active **Ἑλλήνων:** genitive, possesses χθονί **χθονί:** dative, indirect object with εἰσφέρει **καί:** coordinating conjunction **Φρυξί:** dative, indirect object with εἰσφέρει

### **Module 14 Answers to Practice Declining Nouns**


# **Module 14 Answers to Practice Translating the Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective**


# **Module 14 Answers to Practice Translating the Indefinite Pronoun and Adjective**


# **Module 14 Answers to Practice Translating the Indefinite Relative Pronoun and Indefinite Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective**


### **Module 14 Answers to Practice Translating**

My name is Amphitryon, the sharer of Zeus' bed and father of Herakles. I live in Thebes where the earth-born grain of the Spartoi grows. Some of them Ares saves, a small number; others die. The Spartoi people the city of Kadmos with children of children. Then from them is born Kreon, the son of Menoikeus, lord of the land. Kreon is the father of Megara; the Kadmeans once cheered her in wedding-songs with a pipe. Then to her home, Thebes, where I live, famous Herakles brings her. He leaves Thebes, Megara, and his relatives. My son strives to live in the Kyklopian city, Tiryns. I flee the Argive walls when I kill Elektryon. He lightens my misfortune. And he wishes to live in his fatherland and so he pays a big price to Eurystheus for my return—to tame the earth. Either Hera overpowers him with barbs or fate forces him to suffer. And he achieves his other labors and after these things he goes to Hades to bring back the threebodied dog, his last labor.

# **Module 14 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek Sentences**

**εἴθ' Ἥρα αὐτὸν δαμάζει κέντροις εἴτε αὐτὸν ἡ μοῖρα ἀναγκάζει παθεῖν.** *Either Hera overpowers him with barbs or fate forces him to suffer.*

**εἴθ' (εἴτε):** coordinating conjunction **Ἥρα:** nominative, subject of δαμάζει **αὐτόν:** accusative, object of δαμάζει **δαμάζει:** third-person singular, present indicative active **κέντροις:** dative, means or instrument **εἴτε:** coordinating conjunction **αὐτόν:** accusative, object of ἀναγκάζει **ἡ:** nominative adjective, agrees in gender, case, and number with μοῖρα **μοῖρα:** nominative, subject of ἀναγκάζει **ἀναγκάζει:** third-person singular, present indicative active **παθεῖν:** dynamic infinitive with ἀναγκάζει

# **Module 15 Answers to Practice with Attributive Position**


# **Module 15 Answers to Practice with Predicate Position**


# **Module 15 Answers to Practice Translating**


# **Module 15 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek Sentences**

**τῷ ξένῷ δεῖ ἀκολουθέειν τοῖς ἐπιχωρίοις νόμοις.** *It is necessary for a stranger to follow the customs each country has.*

**τῷ:** dative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with ξένῳ **ξένῳ:** dative, indirect object with δεῖ

**δεῖ:** third-person singular, present indicative active; impersonal verb **ἀκολουθέειν:** dynamic infinitive with δεῖ

**τοῖς:** dative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with νόμοις **ἐπιχωρίοις:** dative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with νόμοις **νόμοις:** dative, object of the verb ἀκολουθέειν

**τὸ τοῦ ποδὸς μὲν βραδύ· τὸ τοῦ δὲ νοῦ ταχύ.** *The work of the foot is slow; that of the mind is swift.*

**τὸ τοῦ ποδός:** substantive noun in the nominative, subject of an implied **is**

### **μέν:** adverb, contrasts with δέ

**βραδύ:** nominative adjective, predicate adjective, agrees in gender case and number with the substantive noun, τὸ τοῦ ποδός

**τὸ τοῦ δὲ νοῦ:** substantive noun in the nominative, subject of an implied **is δέ:** adverb, contrasts with μέν

**ταχύ:** nominative adjective, predicate adjective, agrees in gender case and number with the substantive noun, τὸ τοῦ δὲ νοῦ

# **Module 16 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Dionysos:** I, Dionysos, Zeus' son, have come to the land of Thebes. The daughter of Kadmos, Semele, gave birth to me and a lightning bolt served as midwife. From a god I change to mortal form. I see my mother's tomb and the ruins of our house. They smolder still, a blaze of Zeus' fire, the eternal wrath of Hera against my mother. I praised Kadmos, for he made the land untouchable, a sacred precinct of his daughter. I leave the lands of the Lydians and Phrygians and the fields of the Persians and the Baktrian walls and the country of the Medes. And I travel to Arabia and Asia. Asia lies along the sea and has cities filled with a mix of Greeks and barbarians. There I already danced and esbablished my rights. And now I come to a city of the Greeks because I am a god revealed to mortals. With my cries of the Greek lands I first excite Thebes. From my body I hang a deer skin and give a thyrsus to my hand, an ivied spear.

# **Module 16 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek**

## **Sentences**

**καὶ νεβρίδα ἐξάπτω χροὸς θύρσον τε δίδωμι ἐς χεῖρα, κίσσινον βέλος.** *From my body I hang a deer skin and give a thyrsus to my hand, an ivied spear.*

**καί:** conjunction **νεβρίδα:** accusative, object of ἐξάπτω **ἐξάπτω:** first-person singular, present indicative active **χροός:** genitive, object of the prefix ἐκ- of ἐξάπτω **θύρσον:** accusative, object of the verb δίδωμι **τε:** coordinating conjunction **δίδωμι:** first-person singular, present indicative active **ἐς:** preposition **χεῖρα:** accusative, object of ἐς **κίσσινον:** accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with βέλος **βέλος:** accusative, in apposition with θύρσον

# **Module 17 Answers to Practice Translating the Infinitive**


# **Module 17 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Dionysos:** The sisters of my mother claim that Dionysos is not born of Zeus but had a mortal father and that Semele put the fault of her love-making on Zeus. The sisters boast that Zeus killed her by his flaming fire because she lied about the affair. And so I drive them with madness from their houses. Frenzied in mind they dwell on a mountain. I force them to wear the dress of my mysteries. The female offspring of the Kadmeians, as many as are women, I drive in madness from their homes. They mingle with the daughters of Kadmos and sit on roofless rocks under green pines. For it is necessary for the city, uninitiated in my mysteries, to learn, even against its will, that to Zeus my mother Semele gave birth to me, a god revealed to mortals.

# **Module 17 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek**

### **Sentences**

**Ῥέα ἐν Φρυγίᾳ μὲν τοὺς Κορύβαντας ὀρχέεσθαι πείθει.** *In Phrygia Rhea persuades the Korybants to dance.*

**Ῥέα:** nominative, subject of πείθει **ἐν:** preposition **Φρυγίᾳ:** dative, object of preposition **μέν:** adverb, looks to an answering δέ **τούς:** accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun Κορύβαντας

**Κορύβαντας:** accusative, object of πείθει **ὀρχέεσθαι:** dynamic infinitive with πείθει **πείθει:** third-person singular, present indicative active

**αὐτὴν αἱ ἀδελφαὶ ἐκκαυχάονται ὅτι κτείνει Ζεὺς ἀστραπηφόρῳ πυρὶ ὅτι γάμους ψεύδει.** *The sisters boast that Zeus killed her by his flaming fire because she lied about the affair.*

**αὐτήν:** accusative, object of the verb κτείνει **αἱ:** nominative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with ἀδελφαί **ἀδελφαί:** nominative, subject of ἐκκαυχάονται **ἐκκαυχάονται:** third-person plural, present indicative middle or passive **ὅτι:** subordinating conjunction **κτείνει:** third-person singular, present indicative active **Ζεύς:** nominative, subject of κτείνει **ἀστραπηφόρῳ:** dative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with πυρί **πυρί:** dative, means or instrument **ὅτι:** subordinating conjunction **γάμους:** accusative, object of the verb ψεύδει **ψεύδει:** third-person singular, present indicative active

# **Module 18 Answers to Practice Identifying the Personal Pronoun and Adjectives in English**

Personal pronouns are bolded and personal adjectives are underlined.


# **Module 18 Answers to Practice Translating Personal Pronouns and Adjectives**


## **Module 18 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Death:** She promises to free her husband and die in his stead, the child of Pelias. And yet now you are here standing guard?

**Apollo:** You must take heart. I have for you justice and trusty words.

**Death:** Why then the need of a bow if you offer justice?

**Apollo:** It's my custom to carry it always. **Death:** Is it also your custom always to assist this house beyond what is just? **Apollo:** The fortunes of a friend weigh heavily on me. **Death:** And will you deprive me of a second corpse? **Apollo:** Not even then did I take him from you by force. **Death:** How is it he stands on the earth instead of lying under it? **Apollo:** He exchanged his wife and now you come for her. **Death:** I will bring her to the nether world. **Apollo:** You must take her and go, for I am unable to persuade you. **Death:** You wish me not to kill those I must? And yet this is my work. **Apollo:** No, but to persuade you to delay death for those about to perish. **Death:** I understand your reason and intent.

# **Module 18 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek Sentences**

### **πάτρος δὲ δόμον λείπεις καὶ εἰς μὲ ἔρχῃ;** *Do you leave your father's house and come to me?*

**πάτρος:** genitive, possesses the noun δόμον **δέ:** coordinating conjunction **δόμον:** accusative, object of λείπεις **λείπεις:** second-person singular, present indicative active **καί:** coordinating conjunction **εἰς:** preposition **μέ:** accusative, object of εἰς **ἔρχῃ:** second-person singular, present indicative middle or passive

**βούλῃ ἐμὲ μὴ κτείνειν αὐτοὺς δεῖ; καίτοι τοῦτο ἐμοὶ ἔργον.** *You wish me not to kill those I must? And yet this is my work.*

**βούλῃ:** second-person singular, present indicative middle or passive **ἐμέ:** accusative, object of βούλῃ and to perform the action of κτείνειν **μή:** adverb, modifies κτείνειν **κτείνειν:** dynamic infinitive with βούλῃ **αὐτούς:** accusative, object of κτείνειν **δεῖ:** third-person singular, present indicative active; impersonal verb; supply an understood κτείνειν

**καίτοι:** coordinating conjunction

**τοῦτο:** nominative pronoun, subject or predicate nominative; takes the place of killing

**ἐμοί:** dative, possesses ἔργον

**ἔργον:** nominative, subject or predicate nominative

# **Module 19 Answers to Practice Identifying Active and Passive Voice in English**


# **Module 19 Answers to Practice Translating Active and Passive Voice**


# **Module 19 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Apollo:** Then is it possible for Alkestis to reach old age? **Death:** No, not possible. I must enjoy the rewards of my job. **Apollo:** And yet you will not carry off more than one corpse. **Death:** When the young die I reap greater honor. **Apollo:** And if Alkestis dies an old lady, she will be buried with greater riches. **Death:** You propose a law that favors the rich, Phoibos.

**Apollo:** What did you say? Do you realize how smart you are?

**Death:** Those with wealth will be able to die old.

**Apollo:** You don't think to grant me the favor.

**Death:** Nope. You know my ways.

**Apollo:** Hateful to mortals and detested by the gods.

**Death:** You can't have it all, especially not the things that aren't yours.

**Apollo:** A nobleman will come to Pheres' house and by force will take the woman from you. No thanks will come to you from us and you will still do these things but be hated by me.

**Death:** And yet the woman will go to Hades' house. I go for her now and I will take the sacrificial cut of her hair with my sword.

# **Module 19 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek**

### **Sentences**

**οὐκ ἔστι σοὶ πάντ' ἔχειν, μάλιστα ταῦτα μή σε δεῖ.** *You can't have it all, especially not the things that aren't yours.*

**οὐκ:** adverb, modifies ἔστι **ἔστι:** third-person singular, present indicative active **σοί:** indirect object with ἔστι and to perform the action of ἔχειν **πάντα:** accusative, object of ἔχειν **ἔχειν:** dynamic infinitive with ἔστι **μάλιστα:** adverb, modifies an implied ἔστι **ταῦτα:** accusative, object of an implied ἔχειν **μή:** adverb, modifies an implied ἔχειν **σε:** accusative, subject of an implied ἔχειν **δεῖ:** third-person singular, present indicative active; impersonal verb

# **Module 20 Answers to Practice with Adjective and Noun Agreement**


# **Module 20 Answers to Practice Translating Substantive Adjectives II**


# **Module 20 Answers to Practice Translating Pronouns and Adjectives**


# **Module 20 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Jason:** Will you be receptive to my rationale if I tell you about the marriage? Even now you dare not let go the great rage of your heart.

**Medea:** This is not your reason. Rather marriage to a foreigner in old age will not benefit your reputation.

**Jason:** You know this well. Not for a wife do I marry the daughter of kings. I have her now, because, as I keep telling you, I want to save you and for my children to produce royal siblings as a defence for my house.

**Medea:** I am not willing to have a rich but painful life nor wealth if it ruins my health.

**Jason:** Do you know how to change your mind and appear wiser? For good things must not appear wretched to you and when you are lucky you mustn't think yourself unfortunate.

**Medea:** You are allowed to maltreat me since you have means but I all alone will be exiled from this land.

**Jason:** You yourself are choosing these things. You musn't blame anyone but yourself.

**Medea:** What am I doing? Do I wed another and betray you?

**Jason:** Have you never uttered profane curses against the ruling house?

**Medea:** And I think I am a curse on your house too.

# **Module 20 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek**

### **Sentences**

**αὐτὴ τάδ' αἱρέῃ· δεῖ μηδέν' ἄλλον αἰτιόεσθαί σε.** *You yourself are choosing these things. You musn't blame anyone but yourself.*

**αὐτή:** nominative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject you of αἱρέῃ.

**αἱρέῃ:** second-person singular, present indicative middle or passive **τάδε:** accusative, object of αἱρέῃ

**δεῖ:** third-person singular, present indicative active; impersonal verb **μηδένα:** accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with ἄλλον **ἄλλον:** accusative, object of αἰτιόεσθαι

**αἰτιόεσθαι:** dynamic infinitive with δεῖ

**σε:** accusative, to perform the action of αἰτιόεσθαι

# **Module 21 Answers to Practice Declining Nouns**


# **Module 21 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Jason:** I want no more of this with you. But, if for our children or yourself, you wish to have as assistance in your exile any more of my money, you will have it. I am prepared to give with an open hand and to send a letter of introduction to my guest-friends. They will treat you well. And if you do not want these things, you are a fool. If you end your anger, you will be better off.

**Medea:** I do not want help from your friends nor to receive anything from you. Do not give me anything. For the gifts of a wicked man lack benefit.

**Jason:** And so I call the gods to witness that I am willing to do my all for you and for the kids. But you reject what is good for you. For by your stubbornness you push away your friends. And you suffer more as a result.

**Medea:** It is time for you to leave or does your longing for your newly acquired bride make you eager to remain out of the house? You thought it best to remarry. Perhaps you will mourn this marriage.

# **Module 21 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek**

### **Sentences**

**πόθῳ γὰρ τῆς νεοδμήτου κόρης σπουδάζεις χρονίζειν δωμάτων ἐξώπιος;** *Does your longing for your newly acquired bride make you eager to remain out of the house?*

**πόθῳ:** dative, means or instrument **γάρ:** coordinating conjunction **τῆς:** genitive, agrees in gender, number, and case with κόρης **νεοδμήτου:** genitive, agrees in gender, number, and case with κόρης **κόρης:** genitive, dependence with πόθῳ **σπουδάζεις:** second-person singular, present indicative active **χρονίζειν:** dynamic infinitive with σπουδάζεις

**δωμάτων:** genitive with the adjective ἐξώπιος

**ἐξώπιος:** nominative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject **you** of σπουδάζεις

# **Module 22 Answers to Practice Identifying the Relative Pronoun in English**

Antecedents are underlined and relative pronouns are in bold.

Coltrane had been playing Monk's tunes as part of Miles Davis' band but he wanted to learn more, in particular "Monk's Mood." So, one night at the Algonquin, Nica's house, a place at **which** they often practiced, Thelonious sat down with 'Trane and taught him "Monk's Mood." Hungry to know more Coltrane made a trip **which** became an almost daily pilgrimage to West 63rd Street. He recounted these visits to critic August Blume with **whom** he met a year later: "I'd go by Monk's house, you know. By his apartment, and get him out of bed, maybe. And he'd wake up and go over to the piano, **which** was in his bedroom, and start playing, you know. He'd play anything, like one of his tunes or whatever. He starts playing it, and he'd look at me. I'd get my horn and start trying to find the thing **that** he's playing. And he tended to play over, and over, and over, and over, and I'd get this far. Next time we'd go over it, I'd get another part. He would stop when we came to parts **that** were pretty difficult. And if I had a lot of trouble, he'd get his out portfolio, **which** he always had with him, and I'd see the music, the music **which** he had written out. And I'd read it and learn. He believed a guy learned best without music. That way you feel it better. You feel it quicker when you memorize it and you learn it by heart, by ear. When I almost had the tune **which** he was teaching me down, then he would leave, leave me with it to fight with it alone. And he'd go out somewhere, maybe go to the store, or go to bed or something. And I'd just stay there and run over it until I had it pretty well and I'd call him and we'd put it down together. Sometimes we'd just get one tune a day.

### **Module 22 Answers to Practice Parsing in English**

1. He (nominative, subject of **dedicated**); dedicated (verb); silver (adjective modifies **bowl**); bowl (accusative, direct object of **dedicated**); and (conjunction); iron (adjective modifies **stand**); stand (accusative, direct object of **dedicated**); work (accusative in apposition with **stand**); Glaukos (genitive, possession); who (nominative, subject); discovered (verb); welding (accusative, direct object of **discovered**); iron (genitive, dependence with **welding**).


for (preposition); which (object of preposition **for**); you (nominative, subject of **suspect**); suspect (verb); me (accusative, object of **suspect**); responsible (adjective modifies **me**).


# **Module 22 Answers to Practice Parsing the Relative Pronoun**

1. ὁ ἄνθρωπος σοφός. *The man is wise*.

**ὁ ἄνθρωπος** nominative, subject; **σοφός** nominative, predicate adjective

2. ὁ ἄνθρωπος, **οὗ** ὁ υἱὸς φεύγει, κακός. *The man, whose son is fleeing, is wicked*.

**ὁ ἄνθρωπος** nominative, subject; **οὗ** genitive, possession; **ὁ υἱός** nominative, subject; **φεύγει** verb, third-person singular, present indicative active; **κακός** nominative, predicate adjective.

3. ὁ ἄνθρωπος, **ᾧ** δῶρον δίδωμι (I give), φίλος. *The man, to whom I give a gift, is a friend*.

**ὁ ἄνθρωπος** nominative, subject; **ᾧ** dative, indirect object; **δῶρον** accusative, direct object; **δίδωμι** verb, first-person singular, present indicative active; **φίλος** nominative, predicate nominative.

4. ὁ ἄνθρωπος, ὃν ὁ φίλος παιδεύει (educates), χαλεπός. *The man, whom his friend educates, is cruel*.

**ὁ ἄνθρωπος** nominative, subject; **ὃν** accusative, direct object; **ὁ φίλος** nominative, subject; **παιδεύει** verb, third-person singular, present indicative active; **χαλεπός** nominative, predicate adjective.

5. ὦ ἆνθρωπε, ὃς φεύγεις, μὴ φεῦγε. *O man, you who are fleeing, do not flee*.

**ἆνθρωπε** vocative, direct address; **ὃς** nominative in apposition with the subject **you** of **are fleeing**; **φεύγεις** verb, second-person singular, present indicative active; **μή**, adverb, modifies φεῦγε; **φεῦγε** verb, second-person singular, present imperative (to be learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series) active.

6. ἡ γυνὴ καλή. *The woman is good*.

**ἡ γυνή** nominative subject; **καλή** nominative predicate adjective

7. ἡ γυνή, **ἧς** δῶρα ὁράω, χαλεπή. *The woman, whose gifts I see, is harsh*.

**ἡ γυνή** nominative, subject; **ἧς** genitive, possession; **δῶρα** accusative, object of "Ι see"; **ὁράω** verb, first-person singular, present indicative active; **χαλεπή** nominative, predicate adjective.

8. ἡ γυνή, **ᾗ** δῶρα πέμπω, φίλη. *The woman, to whom I send gifts, is a friend*.

**ἡ γυνή** nominative, subject; **ᾗ** dative, indirect object; **δῶρα** accusative, direct object; **πέμπω** verb, first-person singular, present indicative active; **φίλη** nominative, predicate nominative.

9. ἡ γυνή, **ἣν** ὁ υἱὸς φεύγει, κακή. *The woman, whom the son flees, is wicked*.

**ἡ γυνή** nominative, subject; **ἣν** accusative, direct object; **ὁ υἱός** nominative, subject; **φεύγει** verb, third-person singular, present indicative active; **κακή** nominative, predicate adjective.

10. ὦ γύναι, **ἣ** καλὰ ἔχεις, μὴ φεῦγε (don't flee). *O woman, you who hold good thing s, don't flee*.

**γύναι** vocative, direct address; **ἣ** nominative in apposition with the subject you of **ἔχεις**; **καλά** accusative, object; **ἔχεις** verb, secondperson singular, present indicative active; **μή** adverb, modifies **φεῦγε**; **φεῦγε** verb, second-person singular, present imperative (to be learned in Part II of the *21st-Century* series) active.

## **Module 22 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Neoptolemos:** I hear your words and my head hurts, son of Laertes. For I hate to do these things and I am raised to do nothing by evil craft, both me and my father. But I am ready to take the man by force and not cunning. For on one foot he will not best the two of us in a fight. I work with you but I am reluctant to be named a liar. Lord, if I am acting well, I am willing to fail rather than to win unjustly.

**Odysseus:** Son of a noble father, I too when young kept a quiet mouth and a talkative hand. But now as I reflect, I see that it is the work of the tongue, not of the hand, that leads people in all ways.

**Neoptolemos:** Why not order me to say anything other than a lie?

**Odysseus:** I order you to capture Philoktetes by cunning.

**Neoptolemos:** Why must we take him by deception rather than persuasion?

**Odysseus:** He will not obey and we cannot take him by force.

**Neoptolemos:** Does he possess such fearsome boldness of strength?

**Odysseus:** He possesses arrows that don't miss, which bring murder.

**Neoptolemos:** Aren't we then bold to go near him?

**Odysseus:** We can succeed if we take him by cunning as I've said.

# **Module 22 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek**

### **Sentences**

**ἔστιν εἰ δόλῳ αὐτὸν λαμβάνομεν, ὡς ἐγὼ λέγω.** *We can succeed if we take him by cunning as I've said.*

**ἔστιν:** third-person singular, present indicative active; impersonal verb **εἰ:** subordinating conjunction **δόλῳ:** dative, means or instrument **αὐτόν:** accusative, object of λαμβάνομεν **λαμβάνομεν:** first-person plural, present indicative active

**ὡς:** subordinating conjunction **ἐγώ:** nominative, subject of λέγω **λέγω:** first-person singular, present indicative active

# **Module 23 Answers to Practice Translating the Imperfect and Aorist Indicative Active**


# **Module 23 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Neoptolemos:** Surely it is shameful for us to lie.

**Odysseus:** Not if lying secures safety.

**Neoptolemos:** How then can anyone keep his eyes open and dare to utter these things?

**Odysseus:** If you do anything for profit, it is not fitting to scruple.

**Neoptolemos:** What gain comes to me if he goes to Troy?

**Odysseus:** Only his bow and arrows capture Troy.

**Neoptolemos:** And so I will not sack it as promised to me?

**Odysseus:** You will not sack it without them nor they without you.

**Neoptolemos:** And so it is necessary to take them, if this is true.

**Odysseus:** When you do this, you will win two prizes.

**Neoptolemos:** What kind? When I learn this from you, I will not refuse to act.

**Odysseus:** They will call you both wise and good.

**Neoptolemos:** Alas. I will do these things and cast aside all sense of shame.

**Odysseus:** You will remember then what I advised you?

**Neoptolemos:** You know it for sure since I have already consented.

# **Module 23 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek**

### **Sentences**

**σὲ σοφόν τε καὶ ἀγαθὸν σὲ καλέουσιν ἅμα.** *They will call you both wise and good.*

**σέ:** accusative, object of καλέουσιν **σοφόν:** accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with σέ **τε:** coordinating conjunction **καί:** coordinating conjunction **ἀγαθόν:** accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with σέ **σέ:** accusative, object of καλέουσιν **καλέουσιν:** third-person plural, future indicative active **ἅμα:** adverb, modifies καλέουσιν

# **Module 24 Answers to Practice Translating Contract Verbs**


# **Module 24 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Old Lady:** Who is at the gate? Will you not go away? Are you going to stand in the courtyard and cause trouble for my masters? If you are a Greek, you will die. We have no dealings with them.

**Menelaos:** Old lady, you can speak the same words but do so differently for I will listen but you must stop the lecture.

**Old Lady:** And you must go. It is on me, stranger, to make sure that no one of the Greeks comes near our house.

**Menelaos:** Why are you pressing my hand and pushing me off by force?

**Old Lady:** You listen to nothing that I say. You are to blame.

**Menelaos:** I order you to tell your masters . . .

**Old Lady:** It won't go well I think if I report what you say.

**Menelaos:** . . . I am here, a ship-wrecked stranger, a protected group of people.

**Old Lady:** It is time now for you to visit another's house not this one.

**Menelaos:** No, I will come inside and you will listen to me.

**Old Lady:** You are obnoxious and now I will drive you off by force.

**Menelaos:** Where are my famous troops?

**Old Lady:** There is a place where you are revered but not here.

**Menelaos:** Dear god, I do not deserve this punishment.

# **Module 24 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek Sentences**

**ὀχληρῶς ἔχεις καὶ τάχ' ὠθήσομαι βίᾳ.** *You are obnoxious and now I will drive you off by force.*

**ὀχληρῶς:** adverb, modifies ἔχεις **ἔχεις:** second-person singular, present indicative active **καί:** coordinating conjunction

**τάχα:** adverb, modifies ὠθήσομαι **ὠθήσομαι:** first-person singular, future indicative middle **βίᾳ:** dative, means or instrument

# **Module 25 Answers to Practice Parsing Indirect Statement in English**

1. He said that you will be short-lived and will be killed by an iron spear.

He (nominative, subject); said (head verb); that (conjunction, not present in Greek); you (accusative subject of **will be** and **will be killed**); will be (verb, a future infinitive in Greek); short-livid (adjective, modifies **you**); and (conjunction); will be killed (verb, a future infinitive in Greek); by (preposition); iron (adjective, modifies **spear**); spear (object of preposition **by**).

2. You tell me that the dream says I will die by an iron spear.

You (nominative, subject); tell (head ver verb); me (dative, indirect object of **tell**); that (conjunction, not present in Greek); dream (accusative, subject of infinitive **says**); says (head verb, present infinitive in Greek); I (accusative, subject of **will die**); by (preposition); iron (adjective, modifies **spear**); spear (object of preposition **by**).

3. The dream did not say that I will die by a fang.

Dream (nominative, subject); did not say (head verb); that (conjunction, not present in Greek); I (accusative, subject of infinitive **will die**); will die (verb, future infinitive in Greek); by (preposition); fang (object of preposition **by**).

4. The oracle said that he would destroy a large empire.

Oracle (nominative, subject); said (head verb); that (conjunction, not present in Greek); he (accusative, subject of infinitive **would destroy**); would destroy (verb, future infinitive in Greek); large (adjective, modifies **empire**); empire (accusative, object of infinitive **would destroy**).

5. He said that a mule will never rule.

He (nominative, subject); said (head verb); that (conjunction, not present in Greek); mule (accusative, subject of infinitive **will rule**); will rule (verb, future infinitive in Greek); never (adverb, modifies **will rule**).

# **Module 25 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Old Lady:** Why do your eyes moisten? Why are you sad? **Menelaos:** For my former good fortune. **Old Lady:** Will you not leave and give your tears to your friends? **Menelaos:** What land is this? Whose palace? **Old Lady:** Proteus inhabits this house. The land is Egypt. **Menelaos:** Egypt? To what dreadful place have I sailed? **Old Lady:** Why do you fault the brilliance of the Nile? **Menelaos:** I didn't fault it. I sigh for my life's lot. **Old Lady:** Many people suffer, not just you. **Menelaos:** Is he home? The one you call lord Proteus? **Old Lady:** This is his tomb. His son rules the land. **Menelaos:** Where is he? Out or in the house? **Old Lady:** Not within and a Greek's worst enemy. **Menelaos:** What is the blame he bears for which I suffer? **Old Lady:** Helen is in this house, Zeus' daughter. **Menelaos:** What are you saying? What tale did you tell? Will you spell it out for me once more? **Old Lady:** Tyndareus' child, who once lived in Sparta. **Menelaos:** From where did she come? What sense does this situation hold?

**Old Lady:** She arrived here from Spartan country.

**Menelaos:** When? Surely my wife has not been stolen from the cave?

# **Module 25 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek**

# **Sentences**

**γέλως ἄκαιρος πᾶσι βροτοῖς φέρει δεινὸν κακόν.** *For mortals ill-timed laughter brings awful trouble.*

**γέλως:** nominative, subject of φέρει **ἄκαιρος:** nominative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with γέλως **πᾶσι:** dative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with βροτοῖς **βροτοῖς:** dative, indirect object with φέρει **φέρει:** third-person singular, present indicative active

**δεινόν:** accusative, agrees in gender, number, and case with κακόν **κακόν:** accusative, object of the verb φέρει

### **Λακεδαίμονος γῆς δεῦρο ἐνόστησ' ἄπο.** *She arrived here from Spartan country.*

**Λακεδαίμονος:** genitive, modifies γῆς **γῆς:** genitive, object of ἄπο **δεῦρο:** adverb, modifies ἐνόστησε **ἐνόστησε:** third-person singular, aorist indicative active **ἄπο:** preposition with anastrophe

# **Module 26 Answers to Practice Translating Additional Adjectives**


# **Module 26 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Penelope:** But it is necessary for you to decipher and hear the dream. From the water to my house twenty geese come and are eating wheat. I am cheered by them as I look on. Then a great eagle with a hooked beak comes from a mountain. He breaks their necks and kills them all. They lie in a heap in the megaron and he hangs in the shining sky. I weep and cry in the dream. The beautiful haired Akhaian women gather about me and I am sad, crying because an eagle killed my geese. He returns and sits on a roofbeam. With human voice he checks me, saying.

**Eagle:** You must be brave, daughter of far-famed Ikarios. This was no dream but a fine waking vision which will come to pass. The geese are the suitors. And I who once was a feathered eagle am now again your husband, returned. I will bring a wretched fate upon all the suitors.

**Penelope:** Then honeyed sleep left me. And I saw the geese in the megaron and I took note. They were feeding on wheat from the trough where they had before.

**Odysseus in disguise:** I suppose it is not possible to explain the dream in another way since Odysseus himself said how it will end. Destruction seems likely for all the suitors and no one will escape death and doom.

**Penelope:** Stranger, dreams are impossibly difficult to decipher and for mortals all does not come to pass.

# **Module 26 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek**

# **Sentences**

**τί νομίζεις τὴν δημοκρατίαν πoλλῷ ἡδίονα τυραννίδος;** *Why do you think democracy is much sweeter than tyranny?*

**τί:** accusative of respect **νομίζεις:** second-person singular, present indicative active **τήν:** accusative, agrees in gender, number, and case with δημοκρατίαν **δημοκρατίαν:** accusative, subject of the implied infinitive εἶναι **πoλλῷ:** dative, degree of difference **ἡδίονα:** predicate accusative, agrees in gender, number, and case with δημοκρατίαν **τυραννίδος:** genitive, comparison **ὁ δ' ἂψ ἐλθὼν ἄρ' ἕζεται ἐπὶ μελάθρῳ· φωνῇ δὲ βροτείᾳ κατερητύει φώνησέν τε.** *He returns and sits on a roofbeam. With human voice he checks me, saying.* **ὁ δέ:** nominative subject of ἕζεται **ἄψ:** adverb, modifies ἐλθών **ἐλθών:** nominative adjective (participle), agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject **he** of the verb ἕζεται **ἄρα:** adverb, modifies ἕζεται **ἕζεται:** third-person singular, present indicative middle or passive **ἐπί:** preposition **μελάθρῳ:** object of ἐπί **φωνῇ:** dative, means or instrument **δέ:** coordinating conjunction **βροτείᾳ:** dative, agrees in gender, number, and case with φωνῇ **κατερητύει:** third-person singular, present indicative active **φώνησεν:** third-person singular, aorist indicative active **τε:** coordinating conjunction

# **Module 27 Answers to Practice Translating Comparative and Superlative Adjectives**


## **Module 27 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Penelope:** For there are two gates of fleeting dreams: one is made of horn and the other of ivory. Some dreams go through sawn ivory. These cheat us with empty hopes and bring us empty words. The others go out through polished horn. These ones offer real accomplishments if any mortal sees them. But on my part I do not think that the grim dream came through this gate. If it did, it will be welcome to me and to my son. And I will tell you one more thing. This coming dawn will be an ill-omened one, for it will take me from Odysseus' house. For I will now propose a contest, the axes, which Odysseus used to set in the megaron in a row, like the props used to build a ship's frame, twelve of them in all. He stood at a distance and shot an arrow through them. And now I will announce this contest to the suitors. Whoever easily strings the bow in his hands and shoots an arrow through all twelve axes, this one I will follow and I will abandon the house of my spouse, a beautiful home, full of life, which I think I will one day remember in a dream.

**Odysseus in disguise:** Revered wife of Odysseus, son of Laertes, no longer in the home must you delay this contest. For the crafty one will return home, Odysseus, before they touch this polished bow and string it and shoot through the iron.

**Penelope:** If beside me you are willing, stranger, to sit in the megaron and to enjoy ourselves, I do not think sleep would settle upon my eyes.

# **Module 27 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek**

# **Sentences**

**οὖν τι βούλῃ περὶ τῶν ἐκεῖ φράζειν ἐμοί ἢ ἄπειμι;** *And so do you wish to tell me anything about the news there or shall I depart?*

**οὖν:** adverb, modifies βούλῃ **τι:** accusative, object of φράζειν **βούλῃ:** second-person singular, present indicative middle or passive **περί:** preposition **τῶν ἐκεῖ:** object of περί **φράζειν:** dynamic infinitive with βούλῃ **ἐμοί:** dative, indirect object with φράζειν **ἤ:** coordinating conjunction **ἄπειμι:** first-person singular, present indicative active; used for the future

**εἴ ἐθέλεις παρά μοι, ξεῖνε, ἧσθαι ἐν μεγάροις καὶ τέρπειν, οὐκ οἴομαί μοι ὕπνον ἐπὶ βλεφάροις χυθήσεσθαι.** *If beside me you are willing, stranger, to sit in the megaron and to enjoy ourselves, I do not think sleep would settle upon my eyes.*

**εἰ:** subordinating conjunction **ἐθέλεις:** second-person singular, present indicative active **παρά:** preposition **μοι:** object of παρά **ξεῖνε:** vocative, direct address **ἧσθαι:** dynamic infinitive with ἐθέλεις **ἐν**: preposition **μεγάροις:** object of ἐν **καί:** coordinating conjunction **τέρπειν:** dynamic infinitive with ἐθέλεις **οὐκ:** adverb, modifies οἴομαι **οἴομαι:** first-person singular, present indicative active **μοι:** dative, indirect object or possesses βλεφάροις **ὕπνον:** accusative, subject which to perform the action of χυθήσεσθαι **ἐπί:** preposition **βλεφάροις:** object of ἐπί **χυθήσεσθαι:** infinitive, main verb in indirect statement

# **Module 28 Answers to Practice Translating** εἰμί **and**  εἶμι


### **Module 28 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Eukrates:** For when in my younger years I was living in Egypt—I was sent there by my father for the purpose of my education—I sailed up the Nile to Koptos and from there made my way to Memnon. I desired to hear the wonder that was there. For it resounds toward the rising sun. And I heard it not as a muttering noise, which is the experience of many. But it opened its mouth and Memnon spoke to me in seven verses. And I am able, if I wish, to make a digression and to speak to you exactly what he said. But I am unwilling. On the journey upstream Memphites sailed with me, a man who was one of the holy scribes. The marvelous man was wise and cultured and knew all about Egypt. The story is that for twenety-three years in their sanctuaries underground he lived and was taught magic by Isis.

**Arignotos:** You mean Pankrates, my teacher, a priest, clean-shaven, wears white linen, always thoughtful, tall, flat-nosed, big-lipped, skinny in the legs, but he speaks imperfect Greek.

**Eukrates**: Yes, that Pankrates. And at first I did not know him but when we anchored the ship I saw him and he performed many wonders and he rode crocodiles and swam with beasts. And the animals fawned over him and wagged their tails. And I knew him for he was some holy man.

# **Module 28 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek**

# **Sentences**

**ὁ πόλεμος καὶ δυστυχία τὰς ὀργὰς τῶν βροτῶν τὰς αὐτὰς ταῖς συντυχίαις καθιστᾶσιν.** *War and hardship cause the tempers of mortals to be the same as what happens to them.*

**ὁ:** nominative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun πόλεμος

**πόλεμος:** nominative, subject of the verb καθιστᾶσιν

**καί:** coordinating conjunction

**δυστυχία:** nominative, subject of the verb καθιστᾶσιν

**τάς:** accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun ὀργάς

**ὀργάς:** accusative, object of καθιστᾶσιν

**τῶν:** genitive, agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun βροτῶν

**βροτῶν:** genitive, possesses ὀργάς

**τάς:** accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun ὀργάς

**αὐτάς:** accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun ὀργάς

**ταῖς:** dative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun συντυχίαις

**συντυχίαις:** dative with the adjective τὰς αὐτάς

**καθιστᾶσιν:** third-person plural, present indicative active

**τὸν Νεῖλον εἰς Κοπτὸν ἀναπλεύσας ἐκεῖθεν ἐπὶ τὸν Μέμνονα ἦλθον.** *I sailed up the Nile to Koptos and from there made my way to Memnon.*

**τόν:** accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun Νεῖλον

**Νεῖλον:** accusative, object of ἀναπλεύσας

**εἰς:** preposition **Κοπτόν:** object of εἰς **ἀναπλεύσας:** nominative adjective (participle), agrees in gender, number, and case with **I**, the subject of the verb ἦλθον **ἐκεῖθεν:** adverb, modifies ἦλθον **ἐπί:** preposition **τόν:** accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with the noun Μέμνονα **Μέμνονα:** accusative object of ἐπί **ἦλθον:** 1st person singular, second aorist indicative active

# **Module 29 Answers to Practice Translating** μι-**Verbs**


# **Module 29 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Eurkrates:** I showed some kindness to him for a bit and soon I became his companion and associate and so he shared all his secrets with me. Finally he persuaded me to leave all my slaves behind in Memphis and to follow after him by myself: for we would lack nothing since many would serve our needs. Next we spent our time in this fashion. When we entered an inn he took the bolt of a door or a broom or a pestle and dressed it in clothing. Then he spoke some incantation and made it walk. It seemed to all others to be a human being. It left and filled up water and made preparations and expertly served and ministered to us in all ways. And when the work was finished, Pankrates spoke another incantation and again made the bolt a bolt or the broom a broom or the pestle a pestle. I was very eager to learn this from him but I was not able. For he kept it to himself and yet was most generous in other matters. One day secretly—I was standing in the dark—I overheard the spell. It was about three syllables. And he charged the pestle with the things it was necessary for it to do and left for the agora.

# **Module 29 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek**

### **Sentences**

**ἓν δὲ βέλτιστον, ὃς κακὰ ἐμὲ ἐποίησε, τοῦτον δέννοις ἀντιδοῦναι κακοῖς.** *One thing is best: to repay with double troubles the one who does me wrong.*

**ἕν:** nominative, subject of an implied ἐστίν.

**δέ:** coordinating conjunction

**βέλτιστον:** nominative predicate adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with ἕν

**ὅς:** nominative, subject of the verb ἐποίησε **κακά:** accusative, object of the verb ἐποίησε **ἐμέ:** accusative, object of the verb ἐποίησε **ἐποίησε:** third-person singular, aorist indicative active **τοῦτον:** accusative, object of ἀντιδοῦναι **δέννοις:** dative, means or instrument **ἀντιδοῦναι:** dynamic infinitive with βέλτιστον, epexegetical **κακοῖς:** dative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with δέννοις

**ἔπειτα ἐπιλέγει τινα ἐπῳδὴν καὶ τοῦτο ἐποίεε βαδίζειν.** *Then he spoke some incantation and made it walk.*

**ἔπειτα:** adverb, modifies ἐπιλέγει **ἐπιλέγει:** third-person singular, present indicative active **τινα:** accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with ἐπῳδήν **ἐπῳδήν:** accusative, object of ἐπιλέγει **καί:** coordinating conjunction **τοῦτο:** accusative object of ἐποίεε and to perform the action of βαδίζειν **ἐποίεε:** third-person singular, imperfect indicative active **βαδίζειν:** dynamic infinitive with ἐποίεε

# **Module 30 Answers to Practice Translating Intransitive and Transitive Uses of** ἵστημι


# **Module 30 Answers to Practice Translating** μι-**Verbs**


# **Module 30 Answers to Practice Translating**

**Eukrates:** On the next day when he was attending to some business in the agora I took the pestle and dressed it similarly. Next I chanted the syllables and told it to carry water. It filled the amphora and brought it. I ordered it to stop, to cease carrying water, and to become a pestle again. It no longer wished to obey me but kept carrying water. It completely filled our house with water and it overflowed. I have no solution to the problem and am frightened. If Pankrates returns, he will be upset. And this is what happened. I took an ax and cut the pestle in two. Each part grabbed an amphora, carried water, and became two servants instead of one. Meanwhile Pankrates entered and grasped the situation. He made them wood again just as they were before the spell. He secretly left me. And I don't know whither he disappeared.

**Deinomakhes:** Are you able to make a person from a pestle?

**Eukrates:** By Zeus only halfway. For I am not able to lead it back into is old form if once it becomes a water-bearer. But our house will have to be flooded.

# **Module 30 Answers to Practice Parsing Greek**

# **Sentences**

**ὁρῶ ὅτι ταύτην μὲν οὖν χρὴ νομίζειν οὐ τὴν αἰτίαν τῶν πάντων κακῶν εἶναι.** *I see that it is necessary to think that she is not responsible for all the evils.*

**ὁρῶ:** first-person singular, present indicative active **ὅτι:** subordinating conjunction **ταύτην:** accusative, subject of εἶναι in indirect statement **μέν:** adverb, looks forward to an answering δέ **οὖν:** adverb, modifies χρή **χρή:** third-person singular, present indicative active; impersonal verb **νομίζειν:** dynamic infinitive with χρή

### **οὐ:** adverb, modifies εἶναι

**τήν:** accusative adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with αἰτίαν **αἰτίαν:** accusative, predicate accusative with ταύτην **τῶν:** genitive adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with κακῶν **πάντων:** genitive adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with κακῶν **κακῶν:** genitive with the adjective αἰτίαν **εἶναι:** infinitive, main verb in indirect statement

**δύνασαι ἄνθρωπον ποιεῖν ἐκ τοῦ ὑπέρου;** *Are you able to make a person from a pestle?*

**δύνασαι:** second-person singular, present indicative middle or passive **ἄνθρωπον:** accusative, object of ποιεῖν **ποιεῖν:** dynamic infinitive with δύνασαι **ἐκ:** preposition

**τοῦ:** genitive adjective, agrees in gender, number, and case with ὑπέρου **ὑπέρου:** genitive, object of ἐκ

# **References**


# **Index**

ablaut 148, 152–153, 156–157, 491, 498 accent 19, 76 accent, acute 20, 38, 130 accent, antepenult 21, 131 accent, chart for possibilities of 131, 521 accent, circumflex 20, 38, 130 accent, contract verb 353 accent, grave 20, 38, 130 accent, penult 21, 131 accent, persistent 129, 523 accent, pitch 8 accent, possibilities of 22, 39, 130, 520 accent, recessive 22, 39, 522 accent, recessive and persistent 22, 39 accent, stress 8 accent, ultima 21, 131 accusative, direct object 46–47, 68 accusative, duration of time 238 accusative, extent of space 238 accusative, extent of space and duration of time 69 accusative, respect 237 adjective 273, 405 adjective, agreement with noun 127–128, 234 adjective, agreement with nouns 174 adjective and pronoun αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό 283 adjective and pronoun εἷς, μία, ἕν 235 adjective and pronoun ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη, ἐκεῖνο 285 adjective and pronoun μηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν 235 adjective and pronoun ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε 285 adjective and pronoun οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν 235 adjective and pronoun οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο 284 adjective, comparative 405–406 adjective, comparative and superlative in -ης, -ες 407 adjective, comparative and superlative in -ίων, -ιον and -ιστος, -ίστη, -ιστον 407

adjective, comparative and superlative in -ύς, -εῖα, -ύ 407 adjective, English 127 adjective, first and second declension 273 adjective, mixed declension -ων, -ουσα, -ον 395 adjectives, mixed-declension 279 adjective, substantive 139, 280 adjective, superlative 405–406 adjective, three degrees 405 adjective ἀληθής, ἀληθές 394 adjective ἡδύς, ἡδεῖα, ἡδύ 393 adjective μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα 392 adjective πολύς, πολλή, πολύ 393 adverb 27–28, 408 adverb, comparative 409 adverb, positive 409 adverb, superlative 409 Aiskhylos 191, 532 alphabet 1–2 Anakreon 23, 532 Anaxagoras 191, 532 Anaximandros 190, 532 Anaximenes 190, 532 Anna Komnene 532 Antiphon 192, 532 Appian 532 apposition 71, 488 Apuleius 246 Aquila Theatre 144 Aristarkhos 193, 533 Aristophanes 193, 533 Aristoteles 193, 533 Arkhilokhos 15, 533 article, adjective 128 article, definite 127–128 article, substantive adjective 139 article, substantive with adverb 139 article, substantive with noun 139 article, substantive with prepositional phrase 139 Athenaios 220, 533 aulos 41

black humor 239 Bloom, Benjamin 125 Bloom, taxonomy 125 boustrophedon 418 breathing, rough and smooth 6 building block 79, 81 capitalization 14 Case and Function Chart 70, 481 clause, πρίν 373 clause, ὥστε 375 Cohen, Amy R. 387 comparison with ἤ 410 conjunction 35–36, 137 conjunction, coordinating 35 conjunction, subordinating 35 creativity 315, 385, 404, 432, 448 Damaskios 533 Danek, Georg 49 dative, degree of difference 410 dative, indirect object 47, 64 dative, means or instrument 66 dative, place where 67 dative, possession 66 dative, respect 237 dative, time when 238 death 383–384 Dellis, Nelson 138 Demokritos 192, 533 Demosthenes 533 dialect 2, 10, 15, 73, 84, 154–158, 171, 183, 234, 295, 297, 527, 535 dialect, Herodotos' mixed 527 dialect, Ionic and Attic 529 digamma 2 Diogenes 193, 430, 534 diphthong 5 elision 89 Empedokles 191, 534 enclitic 29, 37, 100, 109 ending, creates meaning 46 epic poetry 49 Epiktetos 534 Eukleides 193, 445, 534 Euripides 73, 192, 534 Euripides, readers of 104 Frost, Robert 226 genitive, comparison 410

genitive, dependence 63 genitive, possession 62 genitive, separation 63 genitive,timewithinwhich 239 Goodkin, Joe 267 Gorgias 192, 534 Hagel, Stefan 10, 24, 42, 49–50, 53, 56, 91 Helen 160 Heller, Joseph 27 Herakleitos 190, 534 herm 446 Herodotos 10, 135, 535 Hippokrates 192, 535 history 303 Holland, Tom 169 Homer 50, 397, 535 Homeric question 397 iambic poetry 15 infinitive 487 infinitive, articular 488 infinitive, dynamic 487 infinitive, finite verb 488 iota adscript 13 iota subscript 13 Julian 220, 535 Kallimakhos 535 koppa 2 Lucian 73, 535 Lykourgos 536 lyric poetry 40 Lysias 536 macron 4, 22, 38–39 Mastronarde 3 Medea 287 Melville, Herman 79 memorization, body palace 212 memorization, car palace 227 memorization, linking 17, 76, 138 memorization, memory palace 292 memorization, word numbers 351 Menandros 193, 536 Mimnermos 32, 536 nominative, predicate 61 nominative, predicate adjective 62 nominative, subject 46–47, 61

noun 59, 147, 171, 203, 295

noun, case 60 noun, common gender 148 noun, declensions of 147 noun, first declension in -η or -ᾱ 171 noun, first declension in ης, ου 297 noun, first declension short alpha 295 noun, four subtypes of third declension 152 noun, gender 60 noun, gender of 148 noun, identification of 148 noun, number 60 noun, second declension 203 noun, sets 1–10 299 noun, sets of 147 noun, third declension 59, 148–149 Olympics 124 orthography 8, 20 Palaima, Tom 209 papyrology 225 Parmenides 191, 536 phalloi 446 Philoktetes 347 Platon 193, 536 postpositive 29, 37, 109 Praxilla 219, 536 prefix 87 prefix, object of 88 preposition 79, 82 prepositional phrase 79 preposition, anastrophe 85 preposition, motion away from 85 preposition, motion towards or against 85 preposition, object of 71, 81 preposition, place where 85 proclitic 30, 37, 109 pronoun 59, 174, 229 pronoun and adjective ὅστις, ἥτις, ὅτι 177 pronoun and adjective τις, τι 176 pronoun and adjective τίς, τί 175 pronoun, first person English 229 pronoun, personal Greek 231 pronoun, relative 305, 310 pronoun, second person English 230 pronoun, third person English 230 pronoun αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό 232 pronoun ἐγώ 231 pronoun ὅς, ἥ, ὅ 307 pronoun σύ 231

pronoun σφεῖς 233 pronunciation 3 prophecy 363 Protagoras 191, 536 punctuation 14 Pythagoras 190, 537 quantitative metathesis 148, 152, 156–158, 529 Rayor, Diane 449 religion 383 sampi 2 Samtani, Roshan 24 san 2 Sappho 472, 537 Satyros 412, 537 seer 363 sigma, intervocalic 153 Sokrates 192, 537 sophism 189 Sophokles 191, 310, 537 syllabary, Phoenician 1 syllabification 20 Thales 190, 537 Theater of War Productions 145 Thrasymakhos 192, 538 verb 93, 111, 213, 245, 319, 353, 421, 433, 453 verb, active voice 97, 246 verb, alpha contract 353 verb, aorist and present infinitives 323 verb aspect, completed 95 verb aspect, incomplete 95 verb aspect, stative 95 verb, contract 353 verb, declarative infinitive 367 verb, deponent 217 verb, dynamic infinitive 218, 367 verb ending, aorist ω-verbs 324 verb ending, future middle and passive ω-verbs 249 verb ending, imperfect and aorist ω-verbs 326 verb ending, imperfect ω-verbs 324 verb ending, present and future active ω-verbs 111 verb ending, present tense μι-verbs 103

verb ending, primary middle and passive 248 verb ending, secondary middle and passive 325 verb, epsilon contract 355 verb, finite 93 verb, first aorist 321 verb, future indicative active ω-verbs 213 verb, gnomic aorist 321 verb, historic or storytelling 118 verb, infinitive 93, 217, 322, 367 verb, intransitive 93 verb, linking 94 verb, middle voice 97, 247 verb, mixed aorist 322 verb, mood in English 95 verb, mood in Greek 96 verb, omicron contract 356 verb, passive voice 97, 246 verb, past indicative augment 319 verb, principal parts 98 verb, root aorist 322 verb, second aorist 321 verb stem, aorist ω-verbs 324 verb stem, future active and middle ω-verbs 249 verb stem, future passive ω-verbs 249 verb stem, future tense ω-verbs 213 verb stem, imperfect ω-verbs 323 verb stem, present active, middle, and passive ω-verbs 249 verb stem, present tense μι-verbs 120 verb stem, present tense ω-verbs 117 verb stem, present δίδωμι, τίθημι 102 verb stem, present ω-verbs 111 verb, tense 94 verb, tense-aspect 94 verb, transitive 93

verb, voice 96, 246 verb ἀξιόω 356 verb δείκνυμι 433 verb δίδωμι 102–103, 255, 335 verb δοκέω 355 verb εἰμί 99, 421 verb εἶμι 422 verb ἐλαύνω 250 verb ἐλαύνω, ἐλάω 216 verb ἐργάζομαι 334 verb ἔρχομαι 117, 217 verb ἔχω 112, 215, 330 verb ἵημι 453, 457, 459 verb ἵστημι 460, 462–463, 465 verb καλέω 252 verb λέγω 327 verb οἶδα 245 verb ὁράω 354 verb ποιέω 114 verb τίθημι 104, 257 verb φέρω 254 verb φημί 120, 438 vocative, direct address 70 vowel length 22, 38, 129 vowel, long 4 vowel, short 4 vowel, sounds 4 Warrior Chorus 183 word order 45, 187 word order, attributive position 187–188 word order, Greek 46 word order, predicate position 189 word order, preposition 84 word order, relative pronoun 305 Xenophanes 190, 538 Xenophon 538

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# ANCIENT GREEK I A 21st Century Approach

# PHILIP S. PEEK

In this elementary textbook, Philip S. Peek draws on his twenty-fi ve years of teaching experience to present the ancient Greek language in an imagina� ve and accessible way that promotes crea� vity, deep learning, and diversity.

The course is built on three pillars: memory, analysis, and logic. Readers memorize the top 250 most frequently occurring ancient Greek words, the essen� al word endings, the eight parts of speech, and the gramma� cal concepts they will most frequently encounter when reading authen� c ancient texts. Analysis and logic exercises enable the transla� on and parsing of genuine ancient Greek sentences, with compelling reading selec� ons in English and in Greek off ering star� ng points for contempla� on, debate, and refl ec� on. A series of embedded Learning Tips help teachers and students to think in prac� cal and imagina� ve ways about how they learn.

This combina� on of memory-based learning and concept- and skill-based learning gradually builds the confi dence of the reader, teaching them how to learn by guiding them from a familiarity with the basics to profi ciency in reading this beau� ful language. *Ancient Greek I* is wri� en for high-school and university students, but is an instruc� ve and rewarding text for anyone who wishes to learn ancient Greek.

This is the author-approved edi� on of this Open Access � tle. As with all Open Book publica� ons, this en� re book is available to read for free on the publisher's website. Printed and digital edi� ons, together with supplementary digital material, can also be found at h� p://www.openbookpublishers.com

Cover image: *Athenian Fragmentary voti ve sculpture of Dionysus (?),* Greek Ashmolean Museum. Photo by Mary Harrsch, CC BY-SA. Cover design by Anna Ga� .

**ACCESS**

**OBP**

 **PHILIP S. PEEK**

ANCIENT GREEK I

**Ancient Greek I**

**A 21st Century Approach**

**PHILIP S. PEEK**