## **Researching Educational Practices, Teacher Education and Professional Development for Early Language Learning**

Examples from Europe

**Edited by Sandie Mourão and Carolyn Leslie**

First published 2024

ISBN: 978-1-032-26602-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-26604-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-28904-3 (ebk)

# Chapter 11

## **In-service teacher education in English**

*Theorising* and *critical reflection* as tools for transforming teaching practices

*Ingebjørg Mellegård*

(CC-BY 4.0)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003289043-14

### **11 In-service teacher education in English**

*Theorising* and *critical reflection* as tools for transforming teaching practices

*Ingebjørg Mellegård*

#### **Context**

Primary education in Norway spans seven years and English begins in Grade 1 (6 years of age). A large number of generalist primary teachers are responsible for English without having formal qualifications as English subject teachers. Naturally, they find this situation highly demanding and stressful as they have not had the training to teach the subject in accordance with the national curriculum. The latest school reform in Norway, *The Knowledge Promotion*, was introduced in 2006 and renewed in 2020; its introduction marked a major shift from a content driven to a learning outcome driven curriculum (Ministry of Education and Research, 2005, 2020). In 2009, the Ministry of Education and Research (2008) established a national programme for in-service teacher education, *Competence for Quality*, enabling qualified teachers to obtain formal qualifications as subject teachers. Throughout the country, tertiary education institutions designed tailor-made courses in a variety of school subjects, including English, to primarily address teachers in primary and lower secondary school. These courses are not legally compulsory; however, national educational authorities have placed responsibility on local school authorities to ensure the provision of qualified subject teachers in their schools. It is within this context that the present study took place.

#### **Introduction**

Teachers need to constantly re-examine their classroom practices, reflect on their beliefs and consider their roles as teachers. During their careers, teachers face numerous educational reforms and curricular changes. Therefore, being a teacher requires lifelong learning, which often leads to teachers' self-motivated and self-initiated professional development.

Engaging teachers in *reflective thinking* is considered vital in helping them to strengthen their beliefs and see possibilities for change and development. However, reflection cannot be seen in isolation; reflection does not take place "out of the blue." Reflection depends on catalysts, or tools, that foster *critical thinking*. Furthermore, reflection interacts with existing and new knowledge and practices; the art of critical and analytic thinking is a cognitive process and a skill that needs to be developed over time (Leather & Popovic, 2008).

When the Ministry of Education and Training introduced their programme for in-service teacher education in 2009, *Competence for Quality* (Ministry of Education and Research, 2008), it was stressed that these in-service teacher education courses required a clear classroom orientation by connecting practice, theory, new subject content knowledge and new methodologies. For most of the teachers attending these courses, their teaching hours were reduced to facilitate combining work and study, which allowed them to be teachers in and students out of their classrooms, putting newly acquired knowledge into practice.

English is one of the prioritised subjects within the *Competence for Quality* programme. To build national competence among teachers requires a longterm programme; this plan of action will run for several years to come, and the number of teachers attending these courses is growing steadily every year. It is within this programme for in-service teacher education that the current study was carried out.

At the university college where this research project took place, the first module of the English course is equivalent to 15 ECTS, and the main areas of study are language skills, language learning and communication. As part of the coursework requirements, the course participants write a text which reflects their existing teaching practices and observable changes and development. These reflective texts constitute the data for the current research project, which investigates how *critical reflection* and *theorising* can act as tools to influence in-service teachers' critical questioning of their teaching practices and stimulate their processes of integrating new language learning theories into their teaching.

#### **Theoretical framework**

Engaging teachers in *reflection* is widely recognised in professional development programmes. However, reflection is a multifaceted concept closely interwoven with theory, practice, experiences, beliefs, competence, feelings and interaction. Hence, there is still a kind of vague aura around reflection as a phenomenon and how it is used.

First, it is imperative to differentiate between *descriptive reflection* and *critical reflection*. The former simply describes the practitioner's practices before and after participating in professional development courses. Conversely, *critical reflection* involves a lot more; it takes the practitioner one step further and includes the underlying and profound issues of one's practices (Ho & Richards, 1993). *Critical reflection* engages practitioners in processes of examining and questioning their current practices, raising self-awareness and opening up possibilities for change and development. According to Boud (2001), reflection can be interpreted as "a process of turning experience into learning" (p. 10). In other words, reflection is considered a "vehicle to interpret experiences and extract meaning from them to develop deeper insight and take action accordingly" (Mellegård, 2021, p. 2).

Larrivee (2000) believes that for teachers to become reflective practitioners, they need to possess two capacities: *Critical inquiry* and *self-reflection*. The former refers to a thorough examination of their classroom practices and how these affect students' learning outcomes, whereas the latter involves exploring teachers' personal beliefs and values. Combined, these two capacities constitute *critical reflection*, which includes examining and inquiring into teachers' professional and personal belief systems. Larrivee calls this "a personal awareness discovery process" (p. 296), which cannot be seen as linear going step-by-step from one level to the next, but rather a cyclical process. Teachers who do not engage in a critical reflection process may end up with isolated teaching methods and "a bag of tricks" without tying their teaching decisions to theory (p. 294).

According to Farrell (2013), reflective practice requires teachers to subject their practices and beliefs to a critical and organised examination to achieve transformation. Farrell recognises reflective writing as an effective strategy for teachers to objectively investigate their classroom practices. Here, time is a critical factor; regular writing allows practitioners to slow down, come back to and gradually unpack their practices and organise their thoughts more systematically. This kind of reflective writing enables teachers to notice patterns and habits in their beliefs and practices. As maintained by Farrell, it is this act of *noticing* that is "really the starting point in a language teacher's professional development" (p. 468).

The interaction between theory and practice is a much-debated issue in inservice teacher education programmes. Ertsås and Irgens (2012) argue a need for redefining and expanding the idea of theory to avoid the pitfall of seeing theory and practice from a dichotomous perspective. Instead of considering theory as a type of meta-theory only, they introduce the concept of *theorising*, which denotes a process where the practitioner gradually applies theory in practice. In their view, theory can be graded along a continuum from weaker to stronger theory; based on Weniger (1953, as cited in Ertsås & Irgens, 2012), they define a three-grade-scale of theory. At one end of the scale, one finds weak theory present in all practice but often masked and non-verbalised. The second grade of theory refers to a more conscious and explicit theory that the practitioner can verbalise. However, the practitioner often needs help to bring this theory to the surface through reflective processes. At the other end of the continuum, one finds the highest degree of theory, meta theory, which feeds the practitioner with broader perspectives and the deep knowledge necessary to accelerate theorising. Underlying this way of defining theory is the understanding that there is no definite point where theory ends and practice begins; there will always be elements of practice in theory and vice versa. Ertsås and Irgens (2012) claim that the ability to *theorise* forms the basis for professional development.

Research has been conducted to investigate what core features lead to high-quality professional development programmes. In their studies,

#### 178 *Ingebjørg Mellegård*

Garet et al. (2001) and Desimone (2009) found that, amongst others, *content focus*, *active learning* and *coherence* stood out as core features. These are particularly relevant to this research project. First, Garet et al. emphasise that it is not the subject-content in isolation that nurtures practitioners' development; rather, it is the degree to which the subject-content and practitioners' learning processes are intertwined. The second core feature, active learning, concerns the opportunities teachers are given to engage in meaningful discussions, planning and practicing followed by interactive feedback. Finally, coherence involves to what extent new knowledge is recognisable and connects to teachers' existing beliefs and practices. Documenting specific core features of this kind allows for possibilities to examine and evaluate the quality of professional development programmes in a considerably more reliable way than just asking about teacher satisfaction (Desimone, 2009).

#### **Methods and procedures**

This qualitative study investigates how *critical reflection* combined with *theorising* as tools can affect teachers' beliefs and processes of integrating new knowledge and methodologies into their practices. The present project is rooted in the *personal experience method* and adopts an emic perspective. Its focus of attention is to explore and interpret the practitioners' perceptions of how they experience the world and create meaning (Clandinin & Connelly, 1994; Savin-Baden & Major, 2013).

Qualitative research typically takes place in the natural setting of the practitioners (Creswell, 2009; Savin-Baden & Major, 2013). Here, the practitioners are generalist primary school teachers attending an in-service teacher education course on teaching English at a university college in Norway. The course runs for a year, and towards the end of their first semester, the practitioners write a reflective text in which they identify one or more areas where they have experienced development in their teaching practices. Furthermore, the teachers are asked to discuss the ways the English course links theory and practice, as well as how new knowledge of language learning theories has influenced their perceptions of how children learn English and their role as a teacher of English. Since this reflective text is an obligatory task, it is naturally written in English and not in Norwegian. The research context is thus integrated within the context of the English course. Initially, these texts were not intended to be used as data, and so, consent was sought at the beginning of the following semester. The fact that the practitioners were not aware that their texts would be used as a source of data may have increased their trustworthiness and authenticity.

Using personal texts, or field texts, has several advantages but also some disadvantages. In the task, the teachers were asked to focus on noticeable development and changes in their teaching practices and beliefs, but at the same time, the task was open-ended, providing the teachers with opportunities for demonstrating higher levels of knowledge and insight. In addition, through explicit oral explanations, it was made clear to the practitioners that it was their personal views and perspectives on their experienced world of the classroom that should be the target of their reflections. This openness and individualisation of the framework for the reflective texts may have added wider dimensions and richness to the collected data (Richards, 2011). Moreover, the language in the written texts reflected the teachers' personal ways of expressing themselves. In this case, the teachers had considerable time to write their reflections, which allowed them to return to these texts several times and further develop their reflections (Farrell, 2013). However, compared to interviews where the researcher can pose follow-up questions to develop thoughts and clarify vague utterances, the written reflection ended the moment the text was submitted. Hence, the researcher may be left with some ambiguous wording in the collected data.

The data consisted of 108 reflective texts collected from four English courses for primary school teachers in the autumn semesters of 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2020. Table 11.1 gives the year and number of reflective texts collected and what grade the practitioners were teaching when the data collection took place.

Table 11.1 shows that there were considerably fewer reflective texts collected in 2020 than in the previous years, the reason being that the number of teachers attending these in-service teacher education courses fluctuates over the years, and in 2020, the group of teachers was smaller. Furthermore, the table reveals that the number of teachers who teach Grade 2 to 7 is somewhat evenly distributed across the years, whereas the number of teachers who teach Grade 1 is noticeably lower. However, the grade group was not considered in the following findings and discussion since it is common practice in Norway that teachers remain with their group of learners for some years.

In qualitative research, the analysis and interpretation of data are closely interwoven and take place simultaneously. According to Savin-Baden and Major (2013), analysing qualitative data involves breaking apart data and revealing patterns, whereas interpreting data concerns uncovering meaning. The data were analysed inductively and coded descriptively. The first step was to identify meaningful segments in the reflective texts; each segment was coded by using terms found in the practitioners' texts. Next, the codes were converted into themes uncovering the dominant ideas of the data (Savin-Baden & Major, 2013). The coding process was revisited a second time to


*Table 11.1* Year of data collection, number of reflective texts and grades taught.

ensure that valuable information had not been overlooked and that no shifts in codes and themes had occurred during the analysis.

It is imperative to locate the researcher's position and relation to the subject in qualitative research (Creswell, 2009; Savin-Baden & Major, 2013). Here, I was the researcher and the coordinator of the English course. I was responsible for designing the compulsory task described earlier, and, hence, I shaped the setting for the practitioners' writing (Mellegård, 2021). These texts are primary sources created through the subjective lenses of the practitioners and how they view reality. As the researcher, I can attempt to unpack and interpret the data; I consider that my close relation to the subject together with my experience and knowledge within the field of in-service teacher education is a strength and provides a sound foundation for analysing and interpreting the material (Creswell, 2009).

#### **Findings and discussion**

The hallmark and value of qualitative research lie in the themes emerging from a bottom-up inductive analysis (Creswell, 2009). Because the analysis and interpretation of data are closely interwoven in qualitative research, the current study deals with the findings and discussion simultaneously. This enables multiple perspectives which paint a deeper and more accurate picture of the findings. In qualitative research, the interpretation of the collected data cannot be isolated from the context of the study nor from the prior understandings of the researcher.

The following section presents the results as themes that became apparent when the emergent codes were organised into larger units containing corresponding information. Some themes appear to stand out; thus, it was decided to report more comprehensively on these, which include *Teachers' competencies*, *Confirmation of existing teaching practices*, *Changes in teaching practices* and *The value of theory*. The findings are documented as representative quotations from the practitioners' reflective texts. Some passages have been condensed but still preserve the essence of their messages. It is believed that this choice of presentation will underscore the personal voice in the collected data. Fictional names have been used for anonymity.

#### *Teachers' competencies*

Many of the practitioners were long-serving, trained generalist teachers. After having taught English without formal training in the subject, they were placed in a situation where their instructional practices and competence, or lack thereof, were exposed to themselves and the world outside their classroom. One participant described this vulnerable situation as follows:

I used to believe that I was a competent teacher of English. However, after attending this English course for some months, my perception has shifted. I felt that I had not been teaching English the way I should. It was really a bad feeling. After a while, I was excited to experience development in several ways of my teaching practices.

(Karen, teaching Grade 6)

Karen openly admits that her assumed competence in teaching English fell short of reality. When she realised this, it left her with an uncomfortable feeling of being rather inadequate for the task. This is a fully understandable reaction; she suddenly became aware of her shortcomings. However, although she honestly expresses that it is painful, she seems fully capable of handling the conflicting situation. Farrell (2013) claims that written critical reflections allow practitioners to examine their beliefs and practices over time to notice patterns; reflections of this kind can lead to awareness and growth, helping teachers "make more informed decisions about their teaching" (p. 466). Karen demonstrated an open-minded attitude to new knowledge, which made her see encouraging progress in her teaching practices.

As mentioned earlier, this in-service teacher education programme facilitated combining work with study, and the data reveal that many practitioners experienced considerable potential for developing their teaching practices because of this duality:

In this English course, theory and practice are closely tied together. One good example is why we should teach English through English. We learnt the theories, we got tips on how to do it, and since we are already working as teachers, we can change our practices and test the theories right away. (Thomas, teaching Grade 6)

Sometimes, theory and practice seem incompatible. In the English course, theory and practice show us how we can help students fulfil the competence aims in the curriculum. There is also a metacognitive side to it; we experience the course both as teachers and students. We gain personal experiences of the theory and the learning outcomes.

(Ella, teaching Grade 2)

Both Thomas and Ella express the advantages of studying while working. Thomas appreciates the opportunity given for trying out new knowledge in the classroom immediately, which may call for changes in his practice. Ella points out the importance of having experienced new methodologies taking on two roles side by side: As a learner and as a teacher. Coherence between existing practice and new learning activities is emphasised by Garet et al. (2001) and Desimone (2009) as a core feature of effective professional development programmes. However, some teachers found the combination of work and study demanding:

It's challenging being both a tutor and a student, but the combination also has advantages. Trying out new theory in my own practice certainly

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helps me assess how the students respond to my tuition. This is a process of self-observation and self-evaluation.

(Greta, teaching Grade 7)

Although Greta admits that working and studying concurrently is challenging, she clearly sees the situation as a process allowing her to observe and question her own beliefs and the utility of new methodologies. Larrivee (2000) calls this a process of personal awareness discovery, which involves developing the ability to notice patterns in one's practices. Greta is on her way to developing selfreflection by critically transferring new knowledge into her teaching practices.

A few teachers expressed an initial lack of motivation for attending the English course:

I considered this course being forced upon us by the educational authorities. They were right about one thing though; we need more educated teachers of English. It soon became clear to me that this course was necessary to improve my English skills and my skills as a teacher of English.

(Magnus, teaching Grade 5)

Magnus's feelings of being forced to take an English course must be seen in the context of the *Competence for Quality* programme (Ministry of Education and Research, 2008). The newly requested formal competence, as described earlier, may easily be interpreted as distrust of teachers' existing practices. This is, of course, not the teachers' fault; it has to do with how teacher training was organised in Norway before 2010 when teacher education was radically reformed. However, Magnus openly admits that his skills in teaching English have been insufficient. He implicitly communicates that he possesses what Postholm (2008) refers to as the "change and development competence" (p. 1717), in other words, an openness and willingness for change. This quality is considered vital for generating improvement of teaching practices starting from the teachers themselves (Mellegård, 2018; Postholm, 2008).

#### *Confirming existing teaching practices*

In in-service teacher education, teachers bring years of lived experiences with them which is considered a substantial resource for critical reflection. Teacher professional development does not solely imply apparent changes by adding new methodologies to one's teaching arsenal; teachers' learning is also about understanding their current practices more thoroughly. The data revealed that many participants sought to have their current teaching practices confirmed:

We have read theory about how children learn a new language. Although it is heavy reading, it is interesting and important because it influences how I teach English. I find it motivating because the theory has confirmed my ideas of what's important to teach.

(Anny, teaching Grade 3)

Anny acknowledges the role of theory and clearly sees that acquiring knowledge about language learning leads to a deeper understanding of her practices. Furthermore, she realises that gaining knowledge of theory helps her justify her work. These thoughts show that Anny has taken some steps in the process of theorising and critically examining her teaching practices. Implicitly, she admits having lacked sufficient knowledge of language learning theory. Ertsås and Irgens (2012) argue that *theorising* in itself shows the quality of knowledge development. In Anny's reflections, there is emerging evidence of a teacher seeing the need for more than experiences alone to justify her teaching practices.

The ability to *theorise* is considered a prerequisite for becoming a professional teacher; otherwise, teachers can easily become trapped in their previous teaching practices (Ertsås & Irgens, 2012). Veronica verbalises the impact of new knowledge and theory on her beliefs:

I have always been concerned about using English during classes, but due to lack of confidence, I found myself gradually using more Norwegian. Now, I feel more excited and confident about teaching English because I can refer to research and theory.

(Veronica, teaching Grade 5)

Veronica communicates that the lack of adequate knowledge has been influencing her classroom practices in a negative way. Based on her pedagogic assumptions, she believed that teaching English by using the target language actively in the classroom would improve students' learning outcomes. However, since she did not have sufficient competence to verify her assumptions of best practice, she found herself in conflict and experienced uncertainty. Hence, she turned away from her beliefs and used Norwegian more and more in the English classroom. As maintained by Larrivee (2000), the critical reflection process is cyclical. Veronica states that a new insight into theory has provided her with the necessary platform for examining her practices; this new understanding has enabled her to justify her earlier beliefs. Through *theorising*, Veronica has apparently found the key to breaking the vicious cycle in which she was trapped.

#### *Changes in teaching practices*

In their reflective texts, the participants communicated their expectations of the in-service teacher education course in English. These were twofold:

When I started this English course, my expectations were to develop my own English skills so that speaking English in class would be easier. Further, I was hoping to learn more about how to teach English and different activities to use.

(Siri, teaching Grade 2)

Siri and her fellow teachers are clear in their views about what skills they consider essential for success in the English classroom. First, Siri points to the importance of developing her language proficiency. Next, she wants to fill a teacher toolbox with teaching tips. Furthermore, it is worth noticing that in the data, there was meagre evidence of teachers explicitly expressing a need for acquiring theory about language learning. What Siri and her fellow teachers say confirms the concern expressed by the educational authorities that teachers seem to take a limited interest in keeping themselves informed and updated on recent research (Ministry of Education and Research, 2008).

The data revealed that one of the most marked changes the teachers observed in their teaching practices concerned using the target language more actively in the English classroom. The following quotations capture the essence of what many teachers reported:

The most significant change is that I now speak English in my English lessons. This may seem an obvious thing to do, but for me, it was almost a "rule" to speak English and then translate. This change came about as a direct link between theory and practice in the English course. I thought that by translating, I was helping the students, but, actually, this practice was denying them "the chance to make sense of English". I have become "a language provider" for my students, and according to theory, this is an important issue we need to incorporate in our lessons for our students to become fluent.

(Laila, teaching Grade 6)

Research shows that the teacher should speak as much English as possible in the English lessons and even now and then in other subjects. This has changed my perception of my role as a teacher of English. Now, I speak English nearly all the time. Working this way is supported by theory. (Kristina, teaching Grade 2)

Both Laila and Kristina show distinct signs of a growing awareness of their existing teaching practices in light of new knowledge and theory and, thus, demonstrate that the process of *theorising* has begun. They examine their teaching practices and reflect critically on how they use English to communicate with their students. The first step taken in *theorising* is verbalising long-held beliefs (Ertsås & Irgens, 2012). Larrivee (2000) considers reflective writing a tool for teachers to notice patterns in their teaching practices. Laila describes a fixed routine of translating what had been uttered in English into Norwegian, believing that otherwise her students would not grasp the meaning. She believed she supported the students' learning outcomes by doing so. New knowledge and insight into language learning conflicted with Laila's wellestablished practice. However, she possesses the capacities for *critical inquiry* and *self-reflection* which, according to Larrivee (2000), are essential to foster professional development.

In their aforementioned statements, Laila and Kristina communicate that having broadened their knowledge has radically affected their roles as teachers of English. Kristina openly admits that her newly obtained insight provokes growing anxiety about her teaching practices. However, both teachers implicitly express the coherence between their teaching practices and new insight into language learning. For sustainable professional development to take place, a programme requires the practitioners to experience coherence between their existing practices and new knowledge and methodology (Desimone, 2009; Garet et al., 2001).

Another issue that emerges from the data concerns the teaching of vocabulary:

For years, I was trapped in the habit of letting English textbooks set the standard for my lesson planning and teaching. Learning about collocations and multi-word units was an eye-opener to me, having been one of those teachers who thought about vocabulary in terms of single words. I am now aware of the added bonus of learning collocations which makes it easier for the learners to retrieve vocabulary and chunk their messages.

(Monica, teaching Grade 4)

My view on teaching vocabulary has changed. Previously, I regularly gave my students a glossary test every week, and the words I chose were taken from the lists in the textbook. The pupils' learning outcomes were probably low. However, learning about collocations, I know that these tests belong to the past. My pupils had worked with single words only and did not learn how to use them in communication. Today, I know I must be critical when deciding what vocabulary to teach.

(Frank, teaching Grade 2)

These findings represent what many teachers express. The way Monica and Frank critically reflect on their present teaching practices and justify changes by referring to theory shows that *theorising* is taking place. This demonstrates conclusively that practice alone is not sufficient to motivate change. Conversely, new knowledge and adequate theory are required to nurture the need for changing teaching practices (Ertsås & Irgens, 2012).

Monica admits that the lack of knowledge about language learning made her teach English uncritically according to the textbook. She describes this as being "trapped in a habit." It is obvious that this type of reflection task offered her the possibility of examining her practices closely. Not being a qualified teacher of English gave rise to considerable uncertainty about her teaching. Frank also expresses being dependent on the textbook, and he realises that his students' learning outcomes were poor due to the way he taught and tested vocabulary. What can clearly be seen here is that *theorising* is a process where practitioners critically reflect on and analyse their teaching practices and deduce the actions that are necessary to develop them (Boud, 2001; Ertsås & Irgens, 2012). Having been practising teachers for many years, it takes

#### 186 *Ingebjørg Mellegård*

considerable courage to explore one's teaching practices. There is enthusiasm in Monica and Frank's words and a desire to utilise new methodology in their classrooms. This shows that *critical reflection* and *theorising* contribute to helping teachers identify, understand, contemplate and change patterns of traditional teaching practices (Ertsås & Irgens, 2012; Larrivee, 2000).

#### *The value of theory*

In their expectations of the English course, few participants communicated a need to learn more theory on language acquisition. The data revealed that a significant change in these perceptions took place:

Knowing many fun activities does not necessarily make you a better teacher. What you do in the classroom needs to be linked to theory. During the English course, we have been provided with theory linked to everything we have done. I now find it easier to argue my choices. Theory should be the foundation for everything we do in the classroom. Attending this course has given me the time to dive into theory.

(Martha, teaching Grade 4)

Here, Martha points out that new knowledge of theory has provided her with adequate resources needed to re-evaluate her teaching practices. She expresses the importance of knowing that learning activities must be connected to theory to justify their legitimacy. Clearly, Martha's attitude towards theory shows evidence of moving away from a dichotomous perception of theory and practice to an acknowledgement of theory and practice being intertwined. She sees that the one cannot be separated from the other. According to Ertsås and Irgens (2012), understanding the value of theory is required to prevent teaching practices from becoming myopic and primarily experience-based.

Another teacher accentuates the significance of gaining personal experiences of the theory-practice nexus:

The English course provides links between theory and practice. The lecturers are good at quickly translating theory into practice. The constant opportunities to experiment with the theory help us understand and recall the teaching methods and strategies.

(Linda, teaching Grade 7)

Active learning and coherence are considered core features for professional development (Desimone, 2009; Garet et al., 2001). Linda voices deep contentment with the instruction given on campus which contextualises theory. She confirms what Garet et al. (2001) claim about active participation contributing to increasing teachers' learning outcomes. Linda puts into words that experiencing the realisation of theory through learning activities will lead to sustainable growth and increase the likelihood for new methodologies to be implemented in her teaching practices.

#### **Conclusion**

This study examined primary school teachers' written reflections to obtain a broader insight into their professional development connected to their transformed teaching practices in English. The work reported here is based on *critical reflection* and *theorising* as catalysts for helping teachers to open their classroom doors and examine their beliefs and practices from an individual, subjective perspective (Ertsås & Irgens, 2012).

The findings of this study suggest that to generate critical reflection and motivation for development, the relevance of theory must be powerfully demonstrated and connected to the practitioners' classrooms. The following quote sums up the essence of how the teachers now consider the role of theory in their personal and professional growth:

Before I signed up for this course, I didn't reflect much on my teaching of English. The main reason for that was that I didn't know a lot of theory about how to teach the language and my role as a teacher of English. But that changed dramatically after a few lectures. The first thing I realized was how little I knew. And now I see how important it is to know theory about how children learn English to become a good teacher of English. (Jon, teaching Grade 3)

It is worth noticing that Jon and his fellow teachers expressed a positive and affirmative attitude towards the inclusion of theory in the course programme, although this was hardly mentioned in their expectations of the course. In their reflective texts, most of the teachers, to a large extent, refer to theory to confirm their existing teaching practices and justify the new methodologies incorporated into their practices.

In light of the findings and discussion earlier, teachers have articulated an increasing willingness and determination to make necessary changes to update their teaching practices. Interestingly, the teachers' critical reflections do not seem to have negatively impacted their role as teachers of English, although some admit to having taught English in old-fashioned and outdated ways and possessing little knowledge of the subject. Conversely, the teachers' responsiveness to new insights seems to strengthen their motivation to continue their work teaching English, equipped, as they are, with the tools to put theory into practice.

The results indicate convincingly that successful professional development courses need to have a design and framework that offer practitioners plenty of opportunities to see and experience the connection between their existing and transformed knowledge and beliefs. Furthermore, considering theory through *theorising* seems to represent a shift and a key factor for *critical*  *reflection* to occur, which signals an interdependence of the two qualities. These experienced, but previously unqualified, teachers of English testify to how *theorising* and *critical reflection* around their teaching practices, through the input of theory, have contributed to their professional development as subject teachers.

According to Desimone (2009) and Garet et al. (2001), it is imperative to look into how professional development can be best measured and how the quality of inquiry into teacher learning can be improved. It is far from sufficient to ask about teacher satisfaction and attitude change only. By asking the practitioners to write reflective texts within an analytic set framework, as described earlier, teachers can be steered towards a critical inquiry of their teaching practice; they are obliged to demonstrate the connection between newly acquired theory and methodology, the subject curriculum and their present classroom practices and beliefs. These personal practice-oriented texts, which serve as data, are based on the teachers' learning experiences during their in-service teacher education course in English and, thereby, reflect critical features of professional development. The themes that emerged from the bottom-up inductive analysis described earlier reveal the key factor of successful in-service education courses to be *promoting opportunities for active learning* and, hence, enabling practitioners to transform their teaching practices.

#### **References**

